Spain's 1808 Crisis: Independence War & Political Upheaval

The Crisis of 1808: War of Independence & Revolution

Prelude: Charles IV, Godoy, and French Entanglements

Early Alliances, Conflicts, and Shifting Loyalties

Newly ascended to the throne, Charles IV and his minister Floridablanca, from the moment the French Revolution began, sought to prevent any revolutionary ideas from entering Spain. They controlled customs, and there was also strict censorship in writing; even the teaching of French was prohibited. After a short period of government by Count Aranda, a minister who sought to improve relations with France, Charles IV made a key decision in his reign: he appointed Manuel Godoy as minister in 1792. The execution of Louis XVI in January 1793 caused the breakdown of the traditional alliance with France. Spain joined an international coalition (against perceived enemies of religion) and participated in the so-called War of the Convention, but the Spanish military defeat was swift and conclusive. The military failure precipitated the signing of the Peace of Basel, the loss of the Spanish part of the island of Santo Domingo, and a return to the traditional alliance with France against England. This alliance was sealed in the Treaty of San Ildefonso, signed in 1796.

Napoleon's Ascendancy and Spain's Subordination

Napoleon's rise to power in 1799 and Godoy's weak government led Spain to a growing dependence on French foreign policy and, consequently, conflict with England. The consequences were soon noted: the victory over Portugal (an ally of England) in the 'War of the Oranges' and the subsequent Spanish annexation of Olivenza did not help to offset the naval disaster of the Franco-Spanish fleet against the English Admiral Nelson at Trafalgar in 1805.

Fontainebleau Treaty and Seeds of Rebellion

Two years later, Godoy signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau with Napoleon, which authorized the entry and establishment of French troops in Spain with the purported purpose of invading Portugal. By this time, Godoy was a widely criticized figure. The naval defeat at Trafalgar had thwarted Spanish sea power and had produced an economic crisis, all of which fueled the discontent of the nobility. This discontent led to the formation of an opposition group to the throne, the Fernandinos, who quickly worked to overthrow Godoy's government.

Peninsular War: Uprising and Political Transformation

The Aranjuez Mutiny and Bayonne Abdications

It soon became apparent to everyone that the supposedly consensual entry of Napoleonic troops had also resulted in the occupation of the country. Conscious of this fact, Godoy masterminded the escape of the royal family and the displacement of the court to Aranjuez. There, their plans were frustrated, and on March 19, 1808, a popular uprising, known as the Mutiny of Aranjuez, erupted. This precipitated the fall of Godoy and, more importantly, forced Charles IV to abdicate in favor of his son, who took the title of Ferdinand VII. With General Murat's troops in Madrid, Napoleon summoned the father and son to Bayonne, France, and forced them to abdicate in favor of his brother, Joseph Bonaparte. The new king, Joseph I, issued the Statute of Bayonne, a Royal Charter granting certain rights beyond traditional absolutism.

The May 2nd Uprising and National Resistance

Faced with the clear evidence of the French invasion and these political maneuvers, unrest finally broke out on May 2, 1808, starting an insurrection in Madrid. In the following days, anti-French uprisings spread across the country, resulting in the War of Independence (also known as the Peninsular War).

Juntas, Sovereignty, and Revolutionary Governance

The Abdications of Bayonne and the insurrection against Joseph I created a 'power vacuum' that triggered the collapse of the Ancien Régime monarchy in Spain. To cope with the invader, Provincial Juntas (Provincial Councils) were created, which assumed sovereignty on behalf of the absent king. In September 1808, the Supreme Central Junta (Junta Central Suprema) was constituted. Although many members of these juntas were conservative and supporters of the Ancien Régime, the war situation led them to adopt revolutionary measures, such as the convening of the Cortes (parliament).

Military Campaigns, Guerrilla Tactics, and Alliances

Following the general uprising against the invaders, Spanish troops achieved a significant early victory at the Battle of Bailén, where General Castaños defeated the French at Despeñaperros, forcing Joseph I to temporarily abandon Madrid. To end the insurrection, Napoleon himself came to the peninsula in the autumn, occupying most of the country except for outlying and mountainous areas where guerrilla warfare began, becoming a defining characteristic of the conflict.

Turning Tides, French Defeat, and War's Conclusion

For six years, the French army (with the support of the afrancesados – those Spaniards who supported the French) faced the Spanish guerrillas (formed by former Spanish soldiers and peasants), who were aided by the British army sent to the peninsula under commanders like Arthur Wellesley, later Duke of Wellington. In 1812, the tide began to turn significantly. The army of British General Wellington, with the support of Spanish and Portuguese forces, inflicted successive defeats on the French. A completely weakened Napoleon, facing pressures on other fronts, eventually returned the crown to Ferdinand VII through the Treaty of Valençay in December 1813. Thus, the war came to an end, formally concluding in 1814.