The Russian Revolution: A Tumultuous Journey to Socialism

Immensity of an Empire and its Decline:

Russia's political regime was an autocracy, ruled by a Tsar with absolute power. There was no constitution or parliament to hold the Tsar accountable. The Tsar relied on the bureaucracy, a large army, and the Orthodox Church to maintain control. The economy was primarily agricultural, with a mix of communal and private land ownership. The living conditions of peasants were dire, with some regions still practicing slavery despite its official abolition. Agriculture was backward and unproductive, although capitalism had begun to penetrate certain areas. Industry was highly concentrated, with significant foreign investment. A new class of industrial workers emerged, mainly former peasants who faced low wages and precarious living conditions in large factories.

The Growth of the Opposition:

Social and political unrest grew due to poor living conditions, corruption in the Tsar's court, and economic hardship caused by the Russo-Japanese War. In January 1905, a revolutionary movement erupted, demanding an end to Tsarist oppression, social injustice, and improved living conditions. The movement culminated in Bloody Sunday, when a peaceful demonstration in St. Petersburg was violently suppressed by the army. The 1905 revolution involved various opposing political groups and even members of the Orthodox clergy. Following the revolution, the Tsar implemented some economic and political reforms, including the establishment of the Duma (parliament) and the Stolypin land reform.

The Situation During World War I:

The outbreak of World War I transformed most factories into war industries, and the recruitment of peasants for the army severely reduced agricultural production. Scarcity of goods, rising prices, and declining purchasing power led to widespread hunger and hardship. Russia suffered military defeats against Germany due to a poorly prepared and led army, resulting in high casualties. Criticism of the government and anti-war demonstrations increased, reigniting the revolutionary situation. The military and economic disasters paved the way for a revolution even larger than that of 1905.

The Fall of the Tsar:

The first episode of the 1917 revolution occurred in February when grassroots groups took to the streets demanding an end to the war and improved living conditions. It began with a massive demonstration in Petrograd on February 23 and culminated in a general strike on February 27. Soviets, or councils of workers and soldiers, emerged as powerful forces. Under immense pressure, the Tsar abdicated when the government refused to abandon the war. The Duma formed a provisional government headed by Prince Lvov, promising political and social reforms and a Constituent Assembly to decide Russia's political future. However, the provisional government remained committed to Russia's military alliances and continued participation in World War I.

Duality of Authority:

The Lvov government faced a growing popular movement demanding further reforms and an end to the war. Vladimir Lenin, leader of the Bolshevik Party, argued that the revolution needed to progress from its bourgeois-liberal phase to a proletarian revolution. He called for an end to the war, withdrawal of Soviet support for the provisional government, and the seizure of power through an armed insurrection. When the promised reforms stalled, Lvov was replaced by Alexander Kerensky. The new government promised elections for a Constituent Assembly but clashed with the Petrograd Soviet and persecuted the Bolsheviks. In August 1917, a coup attempt by Tsarist General Kornilov, aiming to restore the monarchy, was defeated with the support of the Soviet and the Bolsheviks. This victory strengthened the Bolsheviks' position, and Lenin convinced the influential Moscow and Petrograd Soviets of the need for an armed insurrection.

Revolutionary Days:

In the summer of 1917, the Bolshevik Party was banned, and Lenin was forced into exile following a popular uprising. The Bolsheviks, along with other socialist groups like the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, planned an insurrection supported by the Red Guards (armed workers and soldiers). October 25 was chosen as the date for the uprising. Bolshevik forces seized key locations and services in Petrograd. The storming of the Peter and Paul Fortress demonstrated that the army would not fire on the people, paving the way for the assault on the Winter Palace, the seat of the provisional government. The victory in Petrograd was decisive, and the government resigned after Kerensky's flight. The revolution quickly spread to Moscow and other industrial centers.

First Revolutionary Measures:

The Second Congress of Soviets dismissed the provisional government and approved the formation of a Council of People's Commissars, led by Lenin, which became the first government of workers and peasants. The new government aimed to establish socialism and implemented revolutionary measures, including the redistribution of land to peasants, worker control of businesses with more than five employees, bank nationalization, and the abolition of the Tsarist army. The government recognized the right to self-determination for various nationalities within the former Russian Empire and sought to unite them as republics under Soviet rule. A peace decree was issued, expressing the government's determination to make peace with Germany. This led to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, in which Russia accepted harsh terms dictated by Germany.

Civil War and War Communism:

Supporters of the old Tsarist order, known as the White Russians, launched an armed resistance to prevent the consolidation of the Soviet state. Led by former Tsarist army officers, they were supported by foreign powers, including the Czech Legion and British and French troops. The White Russians were strongest in the eastern and northern parts of the country, while the revolutionaries controlled central Russia. To counter this threat, Leon Trotsky organized the Red Army. The ensuing civil war was brutal and devastating, causing widespread suffering and famine. Tsar Nicholas II and his family were executed by the Bolsheviks in Yekaterinburg, where they were held prisoner. By late 1918, the Red Army gained the upper hand, and by 1921, it emerged victorious. The civil war necessitated the mobilization of the entire economy to support the war effort, a period known as War Communism. The state took control of all aspects of the economy.

Bolshevik Consolidation of Power and the Formation of the USSR:

The Constituent Assembly, intended to transform Tsarist Russia into a democratic republic, was dissolved by the Bolsheviks after its first and only meeting. The Bolshevik Party, renamed the Communist Party, became the center of power, with its leadership concentrated in the Politburo. The party was headed by a Secretary-General, who also held the position of head of state. Only party members could hold positions in the Soviets and the state apparatus. Opposition to this centralized control emerged. The Congress of Soviets, which exercised legislative power, was largely sidelined. Executive power resided in the Presidium, led by a president who acted as head of state. The Council of People's Commissars, accountable to the Presidium, was responsible for government affairs. The Bolsheviks transformed the former Russian Empire into a federal republic, and in 1922, they created the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), comprising several Soviet republics and autonomous republics. The USSR's final structure was formalized in the 1924 Constitution.

The New Economic Policy (NEP):

By 1921, the Soviet economy had collapsed, and shortages were widespread in cities. The revolution faced growing opposition, including peasant uprisings and the Kronstadt rebellion by sailors. In response, Lenin proposed the New Economic Policy (NEP), an economic reform aimed at improving living conditions and overcoming resistance to the revolution. The NEP introduced a mixed economy, allowing for small-scale private ownership and market exchange alongside socialized sectors. The NEP achieved its economic goals, and by 1926, the economy had surpassed pre-World War I levels. However, the return to market mechanisms led to rising prices, disparities between agricultural and industrial prices, hoarding, and shortages in cities. Private profits increased social inequalities, and small industrialists and peasants regained some economic power. The NEP sparked debate within the Communist Party, intensifying the clash between those who favored a mixed economy and those who advocated for rapid socialization of ownership, production, and distribution.

The Creation of the Third International:

The Russian revolutionaries' focus shifted from the immediate destruction of capitalism to improving the social and political conditions of the working class. The Bolsheviks believed that Marxism needed to be renewed, and they advocated for the creation of parties prepared to lead proletarian revolutions. They proposed the establishment of a new international organization uniting truly revolutionary parties. In 1919, the Third International, also known as the Comintern, was founded in Moscow. This initiative caused divisions within the international socialist movement, with some supporting the Comintern and others opposing it. The split deepened when the Comintern's 1920 congress adopted the 21 Conditions, a set of requirements for parties seeking membership. The 21 Conditions led to the splintering of many socialist parties and the formation of communist parties aligned with Leninism, a new interpretation of Marxism developed by Lenin.