The Russian Revolution and the Rise of the USSR

The End of the Tsars

Russia remained an absolute monarchy, with the Tsar as the monarch and supreme ruler. State power was exercised without limits, supported by the nobility, the Orthodox Church, the army, and the bureaucracy. The Duma (parliament) had limited powers, and political parties like the bourgeois party and the peasants' party (led by Kerensky) grew increasingly distant from the Tsarist forces. The Revolutionary Workers' Party split into Mensheviks (moderate) and Bolsheviks (radical, led by Lenin).

Revolution 1905

The Tsarist army was defeated by Japanese troops in a war motivated by Russian expansion in Asia. On January 9, masses marched to the Tsar's palace to denounce the government and demand political reforms. The government responded violently, an event known as Bloody Sunday. Soviets (councils or popular assemblies) emerged, and the Tsar issued an imperial manifesto making some concessions.

The February Revolution of 1917

In 1914, Russia entered World War I. Following demonstrations in St. Petersburg on February 23, a general strike broke out on the 25th, and riots erupted on the 26th. A provisional government, led by Kerensky, was established, forcing the Tsar to abdicate and establishing a liberal system. Soviets formed armed militias (Red Guard).

The October 1917 Bolshevik Revolution

Bolshevik leader Lenin returned from exile in April and presented his program: withdrawal from the war, land redistribution, worker control of factories, autonomy for nationalities, and transfer of power to the Soviets. A popular insurrection, prepared by the Bolsheviks, initially failed, and Lenin had to return to exile. A coup attempt from the right, led by General Kornilov, was thwarted. The Bolsheviks tried again and succeeded, assaulting the Winter Palace on the night of October 24-25.

Brest-Litovsk Treaty of 1918

Land was allocated to poor farmers without compensation for former owners, and national minorities were recognized.

War Communism (1918-1921)

The country was divided between supporters of counter-revolution (White Army), aided by foreign powers, and the Bolsheviks (Red Army). The Bolsheviks, led by Trotsky, won through policies like nationalization of industry, collectivization of land, and grain requisition from farmers. This broke the liberal state model and established the dictatorship of the proletariat. Other parties were banned, leading to popular discontent, strikes, and riots, including the famous Kronstadt sailors' uprising.

NEP (New Economic Policy)

Introduced in 1921, the NEP aimed to: allow free cultivation and sale of produce, enable free internal trade, and permit private ownership of small and medium industrial enterprises. The bourgeoisie resurfaced, and resulting tensions provoked debate within the party.

The USSR

In 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), a multinational and multi-ethnic state, was created. A constitution was drafted in 1923, granting internal autonomy to republics. The Supreme Soviet held legislative power and appointed a Presidium (head of state) and the Council of People's Commissars (Ministers). The only party was the CPSU, with its Central Committee headed by the Secretary General. In 1919, the Third International was founded, based on creating Communist parties outside the Soviet Union, modeled after the highly centralized and undemocratic CPSU.

The Rise of Stalin

Lenin died in 1924, leading to struggles between Stalin, Trotsky, Kamenev, and Zinoviev, who held differing views. Stalin became General Secretary of the CPSU in 1922 and promoted "socialism in one country," focusing on consolidating the revolution. The Third International became a tool for Stalin's interests.

Stalin's Totalitarianism

By 1929, Stalin had monopolized power through:

• The cult of personality, portraying Stalin as a benefactor and "father of the people."
• Strengthening the CPSU's power, eliminating the Soviets' freedom as popular assemblies.
• Terror, using the NKVD (secret police) to silence opposition.

The Great Purge (1933-1939) involved the Moscow Trials, convicting former party leaders, and sending many to concentration camps (gulags). Stalin controlled culture, banning all movements except socialist realism.

A Planned Economy

Gosplan (the agency responsible for economic planning) implemented Five-Year Plans (setting economic objectives and resource allocation). The goal was to overcome the Soviet Union's economic backwardness. All economic activities were state-controlled, and private property was abolished.

Agricultural Collectivization

Land was collectivized, forcing owners to relinquish their plots. Wealthy peasants (kulaks) who resisted faced severe repression. Collective farms (large, cooperative farms) and state farms (state-owned farms with wage earners) were established, promoting advanced machinery and techniques.

Industrial Development

Heavy industry and energy production (coal, oil, electricity) were prioritized. The first three Five-Year Plans transformed the USSR into an industrial power, but neglected consumer goods and resulted in low living standards for the population.