Roman Republic History: From Punic Wars to Julius Caesar

The Punic Wars and Roman Expansion

After the Gauls sacked Rome in 387 B.C.E., Romans saw Carthage in North Africa as a threat. This prompted three Punic Wars, all won by Rome. The First Punic War, in which Rome learned naval warfare, made Sicily Rome’s first province. Rome issued an ultimatum to Carthage that prompted the great Hannibal to invade Italy, causing the Second Punic War that Rome also won. The Third Punic War was caused when Carthaginians retaliated against the Numidian king Masinissa, who was a Roman ally. After those victories, Roman territory now included Spain, North Africa, Macedonia, Greece, and parts of Asia Minor.

The Rise of Gnaeus Pompey

The young Gnaeus Pompey (106–48 B.C.E.) gathered a private army to fight for Sulla and achieved such success that he earned a triumph at twenty-three without having held a single public office. In 60 B.C.E., Pompey put down a rebellion in Spain and then seized the glory in the defeat of the massive slave rebellion led by Spartacus.

The Alliance of Caesar and Pompey

The alliance between Pompey and Caesar was cemented by the marriage of Caesar's daughter, Julia, to Pompey. One year after allying with Pompey, Caesar won election as a consul and began to build a client army in Gaul. His military prowess and success at plundering central and northern Gaul won him great devotion from his soldiers and great dread from his political enemies in Rome.

Civil War and the Battle of Pharsalus

Following the deaths of Crassus in battle and Caesar's daughter in childbirth, the alliance ended, and Caesar and Pompey went to war. Caesar led his army against Rome after Pompey was appointed sole consul. Popular support for Caesar forced Pompey and most senators to flee Rome; Caesar's army followed him to Spain and Greece, defeating his enemies' armies and winning a decisive battle at Pharsalus in 48 B.C.E.

The Dictatorship and Death of Caesar

Pompey fled to Egypt and was murdered by ministers of the boy-pharaoh Ptolemy. After defeating the final holdouts from the civil war, Caesar took over as sole ruler of the Roman Empire, appointing himself dictator in 48 B.C.E. He established policies that endeared him to most of the common people but outraged the Optimates. A band of Optimate senators stabbed Caesar to death on March 15, 44 B.C.E.