Rise of Monarchies and Crisis in Late Medieval Europe

The Rise of Monarchies

Strengthening of Royal Power

The power of the emperor and the pope was limited by the rise of monarchies, which enjoyed economic and social development from the thirteenth century.

The most powerful kingdom in Europe was France, governed by the Capetian dynasty. Conflicts arose between England and France. In the Iberian Peninsula, the Christian kingdoms grew and strengthened in their fight against Muslims. Christian kingdoms also formed in Northern and Eastern Europe, including Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Poland, and Hungary.

Factors Contributing to the Rise of Monarchies

• The bourgeoisie supported the monarchs to consolidate their power against the feudal lords. This support benefited both kings and the bourgeoisie, to the detriment of feudal lords, who lost some of their power and influence.
• Economic prosperity enabled the kings to pay armies and officials. The power of kings grew, supported by a professional army and an increasingly complex system of justice and administration.
• Universities recovered and began to teach ancient Roman law. This fostered the idea that the true representative of public interest was the monarch.
• Kings expanded their domains using various methods. Some dynasties consolidated their power over increasingly large territories.

Representation of the Kingdom

Consultative Assemblies (Parliaments)

As kingdoms grew, their governance became more complex, and monarchs were forced to introduce new public institutions, notably consultative assemblies or parliaments. Their names varied from country to country.

The assembly met when summoned by the king. It purported to represent everyone in the kingdom, but in practice, only the most powerful members attended. It was organized around three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the third estate (also called the commons), whose members reported directly to the king, not to a feudal lord. This last estate was formed by attorneys.

Functions of Consultative Assemblies

• Swear allegiance to the king or his heir. This was essential in case of succession problems.
• Approve new taxes and extraordinary aid. Taxes usually fell on the middle class.
• Support the king in foreign policy matters. The king sought advice in these meetings, often accompanied by a request for money.
• Present grievances and petitions to the king.

The End of an Agricultural Cycle and Demographic Catastrophe

Worsening Living Conditions

In the early fourteenth century, living conditions worsened for the population due to several factors:

• Bad harvests, suggesting climate change.
• Reaching the limits of growth allowed by available resources. Production had stalled, marking the end of an agricultural cycle.
• The growth of commerce and crafts led to land being used for more profitable products, decreasing food production.

Demographic Crisis and Conflicts

Between 1150 and 1300, the European population grew from 50 to 73 million. However, the balance between population and resources was precarious.

Bad harvests in the early fourteenth century triggered a crisis, leading to major famines.

This coincided with a period of serious tensions caused by wars, looting, and disruption of trade. Armies sometimes burned fields to cause hunger.

Malnutrition weakened the population and encouraged epidemics. The Black Death spread across Europe between 1347 and 1350, causing millions of deaths.

Social Impact of the Demographic Catastrophe

The demographic catastrophe had an immediate social impact. Labor shortages caused a drop in agricultural production. Lords increased taxes, leading to violent peasant revolts across the continent. The bourgeoisie crushed these uprisings.

A general climate of insecurity and violence prevailed. Poorly paid soldiers resorted to robbing and looting farmers and cities. Fear and hysteria surrounding epidemics often led to attacks against Jewish ghettos, whose inhabitants were accused of spreading the disease.

The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)

The Hundred Years' War, a long and bloody conflict between England and France, stemmed from the English kings' possession of fiefs theoretically under French sovereignty.

To mitigate these conflicts, the English Plantagenet and French Capetian dynasties had practiced matrimonial alliances. However, differing succession laws led to a succession crisis upon the death of the last Capetian king without a male heir:

• Following the female line, as the English claimed, would give the French throne to the King of England.
• Following the male line would transfer inheritance to a new French dynasty, the Valois.

Economic interests also clashed, with both countries competing for trade with the rich cities of Flanders.

The situation changed in 1429, partly due to Joan of Arc, who convinced the Valois heir to give her command of an army to liberate Orléans from English siege, which she achieved.

The Hundred Years' War impacted other kingdoms like Castile and Portugal, where similar succession problems caused civil wars.

The Western Schism

Social discontent fueled reform movements that mixed social goals with religious doctrines. These movements were often declared heresies and persecuted by the Church and monarchs.

The Church itself was changing. The papacy experienced a deep crisis. In the early fourteenth century, the Popes moved to Avignon, falling under the influence of the French kings. Many believed they should return to Italy.

In 1377, the pope and cardinals returned to Rome. However, the pope died the following year. Fearing a French successor, the Roman people stormed the palace and forced the conclave to elect a Roman pope. Many cardinals considered this election invalid and elected a second pope in Avignon, starting an era with two popes.

This Great Schism divided Christianity for almost forty years. It profoundly shocked the conscience, as even theologians were unsure who the true pope was. Attempts to resolve the schism led to a third pope being elected in Pisa, resulting in three simultaneous popes.

The Council of Constance resolved the issue by electing a new pope in 1417, but the papacy's authority had been severely damaged.

Glossary

Articles:

Objects made by hand or machine. Also referred to the places where they were made.

Fair:

An extraordinary market held on specific days, usually coinciding with a religious holiday.

Barter:

The exchange of goods or services without money.

Coin:

To make money. The stamp was the seal of authority that guaranteed its legality.

Law:

In currency, the ratio of gold or silver it contains.

Conclave:

A meeting of cardinals behind closed doors to elect a new pope.

Cardinals:

Formed the council of the pope and elected his successor. Almost all popes have been cardinals.

Attorneys:

Representatives of the bourgeoisie in parliamentary assemblies.

Heresy:

A doctrine that departs from the principles of a church.

Council:

An assembly of bishops and other clergy to decide on church matters.