The Restoration and Liberal Revolutions

The Restoration (1815-1848)

The Restoration was a return to the political system of the Ancien Régime imposed by the victorious European powers (Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain) after Napoleon's defeat in 1815.

Supporters of the Restoration believed that the monarch was the only person capable of leading a country. Popular sovereignty and constitutions were seen as limitations on the monarchy's power.

Measures Adopted at the Congress of Vienna:

• Absolute monarchies were reinstated.
• Europe's borders were changed.
• European powers agreed to support any monarch threatened by revolution or attempts to limit their power.
• Two European alliances were formed to enforce the agreements:

1. Holy Alliance (Russia, Prussia, and Austria):

The monarchs of these countries promised to support each other.

2. Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain):

Its objective was to hold regular meetings to resolve Europe's problems.

Liberalism

Liberalism is an ideology that advocates individual liberties, such as:

• The right to life
• Freedom of expression and association
• The right to choose political representatives
• The right to own private property

Liberalism has its origins in British liberalism and Enlightenment ideas, which had triumphed with the Glorious Revolution in Great Britain, American Independence, and the French Revolution. It represented the interests of the wealthy bourgeoisie, who fought to maintain their political rights.

Principles Supported by Liberals:

• Constitutions
• Constitutional monarchy
• Separation of powers
• Popular sovereignty
• Individual liberties

Nationalism

Nationalism is an ideology that advocates the right of people who define themselves as a nation to form independent states.

It originated in many European countries resisting the Napoleonic Empire.

Key Principles Supported by Nationalists:

• Nation-state based on common links, such as culture, history, and language.
• Popular sovereignty – each nation chooses its own form of government.

Types of Nationalism:

• Unification Nationalism: Advocated the unification of independent states with a common language and history (e.g., Italy).
• Separatist Nationalism: Advocated independence for regions within multinational states (e.g., Greece).

Democracy

Democratic movements advocated for ordinary people's right to participate in politics. Their supporters wanted to end the social and economic inequalities produced by bourgeois liberalism.

The petite bourgeoisie, laborers, and peasants rejected the limited male suffrage imposed by the wealthy bourgeoisie. As these groups often lacked property, they did not have the right to vote.

Key Principles Supported by Democrats:

• Universal manhood suffrage – all men should have the right to vote.
• Preference for a republic.

1820 Revolutions

• Spain and Portugal: Liberal revolutions aimed to establish constitutional monarchies. Portugal succeeded, while absolutism was re-established in Spain after three years of liberal rule (the Liberal Triennium).
• Greece: Sought independence from the Ottoman Empire. A liberal revolution began, supported by other European countries (Russia, Great Britain, and France). In 1829, the Treaty of Adrianople recognized Greek independence.

1830 Revolutions

• Belgium: Desired independence from Holland. The two countries had many differences, particularly in language and religion (Belgians were Catholic, and the Dutch were Protestant). Holland imposed its policies until a nationalist and liberal revolution in 1830 granted Belgium independence. Leopold I of Saxe-Coburg became Belgium's constitutional monarch.
• France: During the Restoration, the Bourbons returned to the throne. Louis XVIII ruled from 1814 to 1824, followed by his brother Charles X from 1824 to 1830. Charles strengthened the absolute monarchy and suppressed liberties. He approved decrees without consulting the legislative assembly. After his abdication, the assembly voted for a new king, Louis Philippe of Orleans, who ruled as a constitutional monarch from 1830 to 1848.