Reformation Origins & Spanish Monarchs: Philip II to Charles II

Protestant Reformation Origins

Martin Luther and the 95 Theses

Martin Luther was a German monk and preacher. At the time, Pope Leo X sought funds to build Saint Peter's Basilica, considered the greatest work of Christianity. To raise money, the Pope authorized the sale of indulgences – papers suggesting that one's sins could be forgiven, or certain religious obligations (like fasting rules) could be relaxed, in exchange for payment. In 1517, Luther objected to this practice and famously nailed his 95 Theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, challenging the sale of indulgences and sparking the Reformation. His actions began with the sentiment: "I protest..."

Conflict with Charles V

In 1521, Emperor Charles V summoned Luther to the Diet of Worms and demanded he recant his writings. Luther refused. He gained significant support, leading to conflict between his followers (Protestants) and the forces of Charles V. While Charles V won initial military victories, the Protestant movement grew. Eventually, Charles V abdicated his thrones, retired to the monastery of Yuste, and died, possibly from malaria contracted from a mosquito bite.

Spanish Monarchs and European Conflicts

Philip II (Reign: 1556-1598)

Philip II was the son of Charles V and Isabella of Portugal. He died at age 71 and was known as a hardworking monarch dedicated to managing the vast problems inherited from his father. Key events of his reign include:

• He fought against the Ottoman Turks, achieving a major naval victory at the Battle of Lepanto (1571). Miguel de Cervantes, author of Don Quixote, fought in this battle and lost the use of his left hand, earning him the nickname "el manco de Lepanto" (the one-handed man of Lepanto).
• He sent the Spanish Armada against England in 1588. The fleet was largely destroyed by storms and English naval tactics. England remained Protestant; it had broken with the Catholic Church under King Henry VIII, who sought a divorce from Catherine of Aragon (Philip II's great-aunt). After Henry VIII, England was briefly Catholic under Mary I, then firmly Protestant under Elizabeth I, whom Philip II opposed.
• Through inheritance from his mother, Philip II claimed the Portuguese throne in 1580, beginning the Iberian Union, where Portugal was ruled by the Spanish monarch for 60 years.

Philip III (Reign: 1598-1621)

During Philip III's reign, the Expulsion of the Moriscos (descendants of Muslims who had converted to Christianity) from Spain occurred between 1609 and 1614. This decision was partly driven by fears that they might ally with Ottoman or North African forces against Spain. His reign also saw Spain's involvement in the early stages of the devastating Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), largely a conflict between Catholic and Protestant states.

Philip IV (The Planet King) (Reign: 1621-1665)

Philip IV's chief minister was the influential Count-Duke of Olivares. Olivares proposed the Union of Arms, a plan requiring all kingdoms within the Spanish monarchy to contribute troops and funds proportionally for defense, particularly for the ongoing wars. Catalonia, burdened by the costs and centralization efforts, revolted in the Reapers' War (1640-1659) and temporarily allied with France. There was also significant unrest and conspiracies in Andalusia during this period.

Charles II (The Bewitched) (Reign: 1665-1700)

Charles II ascended the throne at the age of three. Due to generations of inbreeding within the Habsburg dynasty, he suffered from severe physical and mental disabilities, rendering him weak and unable to govern effectively. It was widely expected he would die young and without an heir. His anticipated death led European powers to maneuver for control of the vast Spanish Empire, culminating in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) upon his death. The French candidate, Philip V (a Bourbon), ultimately secured the Spanish throne. Following the decisive Battle of Almansa (1707), Philip V abolished the traditional laws and institutions (fueros) of the Crown of Aragon (which had supported the opposing Habsburg candidate). As punishment for its resistance, the city of Xàtiva was burned and renamed San Felipe.