Political Turmoil in Spain: From Monarchy to Republic

Amadeo I's Reign and the Challenges Faced (1870-1873)

On the same day that Amadeo I landed in Spain, his chief backer, General Prim, died. Amadeo was despised by military leaders and aristocrats. During his reign, he faced opposition from the bourgeoisie and workers due to his economic policies, and from peasants and workers due to consumption taxes. Politically, he was opposed by those involved in the Second Carlist War (1872-1876), as well as by Democrats, Liberals, and the Moderate Party. He did, however, have the support of the Liberal Union and the Progressive Party. The King commissioned Serrano to form a government. The King's problems were exacerbated by the great internal divisions within the Unionist and Progressive parties that supported him, stemming from personalism and bipartisanship. Within the Progressive Party, there was a division: one faction, led by the more conservative Sagasta, was called the Constitutionalists, and the other, more reformist faction, which included supporters of the monarchy and the republic, was led by Ruiz Zorrilla and known as the Cimbri. These two factions clashed, leading to the crisis of 1871. The King then commissioned Zorrilla to form a government. Zorrilla issued an amnesty decree and secured a loan to improve the Treasury. He was later replaced by Sagasta, a military figure.

Sagasta's term was marked by his attempts to preside over the government and seek alliances between Unionists and Democrats. However, the declining prestige of the government forced Amadeo to replace Sagasta with Serrano. Serrano's tenure was short-lived, as the signing of pardons for Carlist radicals in Amorebieta was seen as unworthy by the military. Serrano was subsequently replaced by Zorrilla.

The escalating political and social unrest, combined with the ongoing Second Carlist War and the Ten Years' War in Cuba, forced Amadeo to abdicate the crown on February 10th, 1873.

The First Spanish Republic (1873-1874)

On February 11th, 1873, a republic was declared. The effort to build a new model of state faced significant difficulties. These included the legitimacy of its origin, as it had been established in a constituent assembly, which the constitution did not permit, and the great diversity of political currents and projects, including different tendencies of federalism.

The first president was Estanislao Figueras, with a government that included prominent figures like Salmerón, Castelar, and Pi i Maragall. The previous constitution remained in force, with all references to the monarchy removed. The Assembly elected a republican government headed by Figueras. A month later, the Assembly was dissolved.

Elections were then called, which the Republicans won, leading to the proclamation of the Federal Democratic Republic.

The Presidency of Pi i Maragall and the Cantonal Revolution

Pi i Maragall was elected president. He attempted to reconcile the various Republican factions but failed. A general strike in Alcoy escalated into a general insurrection, which was eventually suppressed. Cantons emerged, driven by a desire to defend the Republic against right-wing forces and to accelerate the implementation of the Federal Republic. It was the *Cantonistas* who proclaimed the Federal Republic. The government fell into crisis, and Salmerón replaced Pi i Maragall.

Before being replaced, Pi i Maragall presented a draft constitution, which was never enacted (known as the *non nata* constitution).

The *Non Nata* Constitution of 1873

The *non nata* Constitution of 1873 proclaimed a Federal Republic (Article 39), with the Spanish nation divided into states (Article 40). Powers were divided among the executive branch, led by the Prime Minister; the legislative branch, consisting of the *Cortes* (Congress and Senate, Article 50); the judicial branch, composed of independent judges; and a fourth power, the power of relationship. It also implemented rights such as freedom of worship and established Spain as a secular state (Articles 35-36).

The End of the First Republic

In September, Salmerón resigned, and Emilio Castelar became president. Castelar advocated for a centralized republic and mobilized reservists to address the Cantonal issue and continue the wars in Cuba and against the Carlists. General Pavía prepared a coup d'état.

After Pavía's coup, meetings were held between Serrano, Concha, Zavala, Sagasta, and Cánovas to establish a republic with Serrano as president. This led to the establishment of the dictatorship of General Serrano, a hybrid system without a constitution, characterized by swift and decisive action. The army played a paramount role, and the regime appealed to affluent social groups.

On September 3rd, Zavala replaced Sagasta in the government, while Martínez Campos was preparing a *pronunciamiento*. Cánovas did not support a coup and sought the restoration of the monarchy without resorting to force. However, Martínez Campos, in Sagunto, marched to proclaim Alfonso XII as King of Spain.