Political Landscape and Crises in Late Medieval Spain

**Political Organization and Institutions in the Late Middle Ages**

**Kingdom of Castile**

The King enjoyed extensive powers. The Royal Chancery was a still-developing institution. Key features included the royal estate and the courts, which were called by the King to vote on subsidies. Municipalities had a mayor as the representative of royal power. The *merindades* (counties) were replaced by *adelantamientos*, headed by *Merinos mayores*. Clashes between nobles and monarchs were exacerbated during the reign of Pedro I "the Cruel," who was murdered in Montiel (1369) by his brother, Henry II of Trastámara. Henry II sought to strengthen royal power through centralizing initiatives: reducing the power of the courts, establishing the Hearing and the Royal Council, and appointing the Constable, equivalent to a Prime Minister. Cities and towns created an organization to defend their interests: The General Fraternity.

**The Crown of Aragon**

The nobility held great power and controlled the monarch through *pacticismo*, whereby kings undertook to respect and enforce the laws and traditions of each kingdom. In Aragon, the *Justicia Mayor* (Chief Justice) defended these laws. The different states necessitated the emergence of Attorneys General, in whom the king delegated his power when he resided in another kingdom. During the 14th century, tensions arose between Pedro IV "the Ceremonious" and the nobility, worsening when Ferdinand I of Castile acceded in 1412. Ferdinand sought to strengthen monarchical power by leaning on the Catalan popular classes. When John II became king, a civil war broke out in Catalonia, in which the monarch finally prevailed. His son, Ferdinand, signed the *Sentencia Arbitral de Guadalupe*, resolving the conflict of the *remensa* peasants in 1486.

**Demographic, Economic, and Political Crises of the Late Middle Ages**

These years span from the expansion of the Black Death (1348) to the beginning of the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella (1474), heralding the shift from the medieval world to the modern world. In Castile, the nobility consolidated its hegemonic role, reinforced by royal grants, estates, and jurisdictional *mayorazgos*. The agricultural depression was exploited by the lords to increase their power over land and to strengthen their commitment to *ganadería* (livestock farming). The political crisis between the nobility and the monarchy ended with the enthronement of Henry II of Trastámara (1369), a dynasty that ruled until 1474. In Aragon, the demographic crisis was remarkable, agriculture suffered, and the lords exploited the situation to strengthen stately ties. However, the peasants led riots demanding the abolition of the "bad customs." Expansion in the Mediterranean continued with the Almogavars under Roger of Flor. The Compromise of Caspe (1412) elected Ferdinand I of Antequera.

**The Expansion of Aragon in the Mediterranean**

The Counts of Barcelona attempted to rule the lands of Occitania and Provence. However, after the crusade against the Albigenses, the dominance of the French crown was imposed, supported by the Papacy (Treaty of Corbeil, 1258). The Catalan-Aragonese monarchy focused on the conquest of Valencia and the Balearic Islands under James I. Subsequently, Peter III claimed the rights of his wife, Constance, to the island of Sicily against Charles of Anjou, supported by the Pope. Alfonso V conquered Naples. Athens and Neopatria were taken by mercenary Almogavars. The Crown of Aragon achieved true political and commercial hegemony in the Mediterranean.