The Origins and Expansion of Islamic Civilization

The Origins of Islam

Islam emerged in the Middle East on the Arabian Peninsula, with Mecca serving as its primary religious center. Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 and was known as a deeply religious man. Legend states that the angel Gabriel appeared to him, declaring him the new prophet of Allah. He began preaching a religion based on submission to Allah. Due to persecution by the people of Mecca, Muhammad was forced to flee.

The Hijra

In 622, Muhammad escaped from Mecca to Medina, an event known as the Hijra, which marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Muhammad successfully converted the people of Medina to Islam. By the time of his death in 632, the majority of Arabs had become Muslims.

Core Beliefs and Practices

Islam teaches that Allah is all-powerful. Religious leadership includes imams, who preach the word of Allah, and ulamas, who interpret the sacred texts.

Obligatory Duties

• Believe in a single god.
• Pray five times a day.
• Fast during Ramadan.
• Give alms to the poor.
• Make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime.

Prohibitions

• Drinking alcohol.
• Eating pork.
• Gambling.
• Dressing immodestly.

Code of Conduct

Allah is considered all-powerful, and the caliphs represent His authority on Earth. Nothing is comparable to Allah, and Muslims are called to engage in jihad. Legal matters are handled by qadis, who apply justice.

The Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates

Following the death of Muhammad, Muslims gained control of Egypt, Syria, and Iraq. By 750, the empire was ruled from Damascus by the Umayyad family, where caliphs held absolute religious and political power. In 750, the Abbasids of Baghdad took control, though they eventually lost authority over parts of their territory, leading to the political and religious independence of al-Andalus. Conquered peoples were permitted to practice their own religions, provided they paid taxes.

The Conquest of Al-Andalus

By the 8th century, Muslims had conquered al-Andalus. The majority of the conquerors were Berbers who crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and defeated the Visigoths in the Battle of Guadalete in 711.

Timeline of Conquest

• 711: Guadalete
• 712: Seville, Toledo
• 713: Merida, Segoyuela
• 714: Zaragoza, Asturica

Al-Andalus became an independent emirate under the Umayyads with its capital in Cordoba. Abd ar-Rahman I, the sole survivor of the Umayyad dynasty, took refuge there. In 912, Abd ar-Rahman III became emir and declared religious independence in 929. Eventually, al-Andalus was divided into 25 taifas. Almoravid and Almohad armies later assisted in defending the region against Christian forces, though the Taifa of Granada was the only one to survive.

Culture and Society

The Alhambra

The Alhambra features the Hall of the Ambassadors, the Court of Myrtles, the Court of Lions, and the Hall of the Kings.

Economy

Economic activity centered in the souqs. Muslims introduced new textiles, leather goods, and crops such as rice, hemp, and citrus fruits.

Social Structure

• Arabs: Held political and social power and owned land.
• Berbers: Often worked as shepherds.
• Muladis: Visigoths who converted to Islam.
• Mozarabs: Visigoths who did not convert to Islam.
• Jews: Worked as doctors, scientists, and scholars.

The Mosque

Key architectural elements include the quibla wall, minaret, entrances, patio, mimbar, and mihrab.