Napoleon Bonaparte: Reforms, Empire, and the Conservative Order

2/4 Europe Under Napoleon

Reforms Under Napoleon

Napoleon Bonaparte became First Consul in 1799, and a new constitution granted him the powers of a dictator. In 1802, he became Consul for Life. Although Napoleon's rise to power marked the end of the French Revolution, several Napoleonic reforms consolidated the achievements of the revolutionary period:

• The Napoleonic Code: A legal framework that prohibited feudal privileges, established freedom of religion, and simplified the complex range of laws that existed before the Revolution.
• The Concordat of 1801: Maintained state control over the Church, ensuring that confiscated church lands were not returned.

The Napoleonic Empire

In 1804, Napoleon proclaimed himself Emperor of the French. Within a few years, he conquered much of the European continent, securing notable victories against the Austrians. As Britain became France's primary adversary, Napoleon implemented the Continental Blockade to halt British trade in Europe. He subsequently invaded Portugal and occupied Spain, triggering the Spanish War of Independence in 1808.

Napoleon's forces later suffered catastrophic losses during the unsuccessful invasion of Russia. A coalition consisting of Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Austria defeated him at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813. Following his defeat in Spain that same year, Napoleon abdicated in April 1814 and was sent into exile. He briefly returned to power for the "Hundred Days" before his final defeat at Waterloo (1815), leading to his deportation to the remote island of Saint Helena, where he died in 1821.

2/5 The Conservative Order

Principles of the Conservative Order

From 1815, European powers attempted to establish a new Conservative Order based on tradition, order, and obedience to authority. Its main characteristics included:

• Monarchy: The belief that peace was only possible if a legitimate monarch headed each country. Monarchs of the Old Regime returned to power as if the French Revolution had never occurred.
• Internationalism: The great powers reserved the right to intervene in another country if a legitimate monarchy was threatened.
• Congresses: Regular diplomatic contact between great powers was established to resolve international conflicts.

The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

The great European powers met at the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815. The Austrian Foreign Minister, Prince Metternich, played a leading role in efforts to guarantee lasting peace and prevent new revolutions:

• France returned to its pre-revolutionary frontiers.
• States surrounding France were reinforced to act as a protective barrier against future expansion.
• Austria, Prussia, and Russia secured territorial gains.

The Holy Alliance of Prussia, Russia, and Austria was formed to combat liberalism and revolution, later joined by Britain and France.