Marxist Theory and the Rise of European Social Democracy

The Foundations of Marxist Revolutionary Theory

The concept of transformation was inherent in the operation of exiting the system. Political activity by the proletariat was essential. The features of capitalism created antagonism between the two fundamental classes, but the development and operation of the system produced the subjective consciousness that would lead to a revolutionary process.

Marx's writings suggested that revolutionary change would involve violence, yet the revolutionary crisis was the culmination of a much longer evolutionary process. He held out the possibility of peaceful reformation and supported the idea that revolution should occur in the most developed countries, as they would find the transition easier than less developed nations, such as in the Russian Revolution. Marx also emphasized the organization of the proletarians into a class—the agent of the revolutionary process—and into a political party, which would serve as the instrument of the struggle.

Social Democracy Before 1914

Between the 1880s and the outbreak of the First World War, there was a massive growth in socialist parties across Europe, all of which united in the Second International in 1889. It was after Marx’s death that the final forms of modern socialism emerged.

Ambiguities in Socialist Party Identity

These parties were ambiguous in various ways, particularly regarding their nomenclature. Although they were collectively known as socialists when meeting in the International and most professed the goal of socialism, only a minority used the term in their official titles.

The Dominance of the Social Democratic Party

The Social Democratic Party (SPD) was the largest and most dominant party in the International, with Karl Kautsky becoming the most influential interpreter of Marxism. The SPD’s program had two primary aspects:

• Class Struggle: It stressed the division of society into two hostile camps, with capitalist enterprises expanding their control over the economic system and the necessity for the SPD to acquire political power to establish a socialist system based on common ownership.
• Reformist Measures: It focused on a program of reform that combined immediate benefits for the proletariat with the long-term goals of socialism.

The Legacy of Marxist Ideology

By 1914, the emergence of parties with a form of Marxist theory as the dominant ideology had pushed alternative socialist traditions to the margins. A further element in this newly dominant tradition of socialism was its professed acceptance of working-class internationalism.