Linguistic Fundamentals: Semiotics and Communication

Semiotics and the Classification of Signs

There are various kinds of signs used in communication:

• Signs (Indices): These maintain a real physical relationship with the referent (e.g., smoke indicating fire).
• Icons: These bear a resemblance to reality (e.g., a map or a picture).
• Symbols: These are based on convention and are not inherently related to the referent (e.g., a flag).

Morphology and Word Formation Processes

Prefixes and Lexemes

Area codes (Prefixes): a-, ante-, anti-, inter-, en-, pro-, re-, i-, in-, extra-, des-.

Lexemes are categorized into two types:

• Independent Lexemes: These are not attached to other monemes (e.g., army, milk).
• Dependent Lexemes: These need to join another moneme to form a word (e.g., pat-o, change-ar).

A moneme is the fundamental part that gives meaning to a word.

Derivation and Parasynthesis

Derivatives can be formed in several ways:

• By prefixes: illegitimate, prejudice.
• By suffixes: porter, swimmer, beauty.
• By several suffixes: nationalize.
• Interfixes plus a suffix: baker.
• Combining prefixes and suffixes: intolerable.

Parasynthesis (Parasinteticas): The difference between standard derivation and parasynthesis is that in parasynthesis, prefixation and suffixation appear simultaneously. For example, in a-bourgeois-ar, the word "bourgeois-ar" does not exist independently; the prefix and suffix are added at the same time to the root.

Compound Words and Juxtaposition

Composite words are formed through juxtaposition, where common lexemes join together (e.g., hobby line generators).

• Verb + Substantive = Substantive: Sunflower.
• Substantive + Adjective = Substantive: Spirits.
• By Disjunction: Words that do not join in writing (e.g., trundle bed and swordfish).
• In Contrast: Words joined by a hyphen (e.g., physico-chemical).

Semantics and Word Relationships

Semantic words share common traits (e.g., flashlight, lantern, lamp).

• Synonyms: Words with similar meanings (e.g., dentist / dental).
• Antonyms: Words whose meanings are opposite (e.g., divisible / indivisible).
• Polysemic: These are words to which several ideas or elements can be attributed (e.g., bank, board).

The Communication Process and Its Elements

• Issuer: The originator of the act of communication; may be an individual or a group.
• Receivers: The targets of the speech act indicated by the sender.
• Message: The information sent from the sender to the receiver.
• Location (Context): The set of circumstances surrounding an act of communication.
• Code: The system of signs used by the sender and receiver to establish communication.

The Six Functions of Language

• Representative or Referential (Situation): Used in enunciative sentences.
• Expressive or Emotive (Issuer): Focuses on the sender's feelings; uses interrogative sentences, idioms, and intensifier prefixes to increase expressiveness.
• Phatic or Contact (Channel): Uses catchphrases and idioms to maintain the communication line.
• Appellative or Conative (Receiver): Focuses on the receiver through orders, vocatives, and interrogations to signal the presence of the "you."
• Metalinguistic (Code): Messages targeted at explaining the language code itself.
• Poetic or Phatic (Message): Focuses on the aesthetic delivery of the message, often utilizing rhyme.