Key Concepts in Sociology: Global Inequality and Society

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Written on May 27, 2026 in with a size of 5.63 KB

Global Inequality

High Income: Highly industrialized, educated, urbanized, and technologically advanced. (16% of global population)
Middle Income: Less developed and wealthy than high-income nations, often due to a historical late start. (75% of global population)
Low Income: Primarily agricultural; characterized by poverty, malnutrition, educational deprivation, and preventable diseases. (9% of global population)

A form of absolute poverty characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs: food, safe drinking water, sanitation, health, shelter, and education.
Statistics: The World Bank defines extreme poverty as living on less than $2.15 per day. As of 2021, approximately 8.5% of the global population lived in extreme poverty, concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.
Trends: While poverty has historically decreased, the pandemic and global economic downturn caused a significant increase, pushing an estimated 70–100 million more people into extreme poverty.

Race: A socially constructed category where physical characteristics (skin color, hair texture, facial features) are singled out as socially significant.
Ethnicity: Social identity related to ancestry and cultural differences, such as language, religion, and customs.
Majority-Minority: By 2045, the U.S. is projected to become a majority-minority population, where non-white groups constitute more than half of the population.

Prejudice: Opinions or attitudes held by members of one group toward another, often manifesting as stereotypes or scapegoating.
Racism: The belief that one racial or ethnic group is inherently superior or inferior to another.
Discrimination: Unequal treatment based on group membership. This occurs at the individual level (e.g., microaggressions, hate crimes) and the institutional level (e.g., systemic bias in schools, hospitals, or government agencies).

Capitalism: Characterized by private ownership, profit incentives, competition, and a laissez-faire approach to government intervention.
Socialism: The government manages and controls key sectors of the economy to redistribute wealth through welfare services like healthcare and education.
Sociology of Work: Most modern workers are in the service sector. This includes both high-skilled professionals and low-wage workers.
Emotional Labor: A concept developed by Arlie Hochschild, referring to the management of feelings as part of job responsibilities (e.g., flight attendants).

Nuclear Family: Two adults living with their dependent children.
Extended Family: Close relatives including grandparents, aunts, uncles, and in-laws.
Endogamy: Marriage within the same social group (race, class, religion, or age).
Multigenerational Households: Increasing due to economic factors, with many young adults living with parents and a rise in "skipped generation" households.
Fertility Trends: The U.S. fertility rate has reached a record low of 1.60 children per woman, with delayed childbearing becoming more common.

Manifest Functions: Intended purposes, such as the transmission of knowledge, literacy, and sorting individuals into economic roles.
Latent Functions: Unintended purposes, such as assimilation into a common culture, childcare, and social networking.

Sociological Perspective: Sociologists study religion as a cultural system, focusing on its role in society rather than the truth of its beliefs.
Emile Durkheim: Distinguished between the sacred (revered) and the profane (routine). He argued religion promotes social cohesion and control.
Karl Marx: Viewed religion as the "opium of the people," a tool used by the bourgeoisie to maintain class inequality.
Secularization: The movement of society away from religious beliefs and institutions, evidenced by the rise of religious "nones."
Megachurches: Large congregations (2,000+ attendees) that often utilize modern stagecraft and charismatic leadership to attract younger, diverse audiences.

Growth Trends: The global population reached 8 billion in 2022. Half of the projected growth by 2050 will occur in just eight countries, primarily in Africa and Asia.
Life Expectancy: Has risen significantly, though it varies by gender and geography.
Fertility Rates: A Total Fertility Rate (TFR) below 2.1 leads to population decline. Many nations, including Japan, Italy, and South Korea, face significant demographic shifts.
China’s One-Child Policy: Implemented from 1979 to 2016, it resulted in a rapidly aging population and a skewed sex ratio. China now faces the challenges of a low TFR and has transitioned to a "three-child" policy.

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