Kant's Formal Ethics and Postulates of Practical Reason

Formal Ethics (3.3)

Kant believes that formal ethical content does not tell us what to do, but rather determines how we act. Ethical imperatives are not hypothetical but categorical: they are binding and require compliance.

• The Principle of Universality: This does not dictate specific actions but prescribes the form that any maxim must take to become a moral norm.
• Human Dignity: We must treat others with dignity; human beings cannot be used as instruments to satisfy our desires.

For Kant, acting ethically means acting selflessly out of respect for duty. He distinguishes between acting legally (in accordance with duty) and acting morally (out of conviction for the sake of duty).

3.4 Postulates of Practical Reason

We can only be considered moral when the will to fulfill our duty is what moves us. Because transcendental ideas clash with human intellectual possibilities, Kant consistently maintained an agnostic position. Consequently, he argued that transcendental ideas must be understood as postulates of practical reason.

1. Human Freedom

Despite the fact that natural phenomena are determined by the laws of nature, we must assume human freedom. This involves the ability to escape the determinism imposed by physical laws and the power to decide one's own actions. While unprovable, it is a necessary assumption.

2. Immortality of the Soul

Although we cannot empirically prove the existence of the soul, we must accept its immortality. This is essential for morality to make sense; only by assuming survival after physical death can we trust that our virtue will be rewarded.

3. The Existence of God

Like the soul, God is a reality we cannot experience. However, His existence is ultimately necessary as a final guarantee for the meaning of human existence.

Marx and the Sources of Marxism

The Hegelian Left

Marx was not a direct pupil of Hegel, but Hegelian doctrines were highly influential during his time at the University of Berlin. Ludwig Feuerbach served as the bridge between Hegel and the idealism that Marx would later oppose.

Feuerbach argued that the deepest secrets of reality are not hidden in abstract ideas, but in the natural things around us. His religious concerns led him to critique the concept of God, arguing that God is a human creation—an illusion to which we attribute our own qualities.