Italian Unification and the Liberal State of Isabel II

Italian Unification: The Path to a Unified Nation

Events during the liberal revolutions of 1830 and 1848 demonstrated a strong desire for unification among the Italian states. These sentiments gained expression through the nationalist ideas of Mazzini, as well as the Risorgimento, a cultural movement that elevated Italian history and identity. Furthermore, there was a widespread desire to liberate Lombardy and Venice from Austrian control.

The Process of Unification

• 1859: The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia annexed Lombardy following a military campaign led by the King and his minister, Cavour.
• Post-1859: Parma, Modena, and Tuscany were annexed with popular support.
• 1860: Garibaldi conquered Naples and Sicily.
• 1866: Venice was annexed.
• 1870: Unification was completed with the occupation of Rome and the integration of the Papal States.

Rome became the capital of the new Kingdom of Italy, and a constitutional monarchy was established with Victor Emmanuel II as the first king.

Spain: Isabel II and the Rise of the Liberal State

The reign of Isabel II (1833–1868) marked the end of absolutism in Spain and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. Liberalism emerged as a dominant political force during this era.

Regency and Early Rule

From 1833 to 1843, while Isabel II was a minor, two regents governed in her name: her mother, Maria Cristina, and General Espartero. In 1843, at the age of 13, Isabel II was declared of age to rule.

Key Reforms and Political Shifts

During this period, institutions modeled on European standards were introduced, including the expropriation of land and the division of Spain into provinces in 1833. Two major constitutions defined the era:

• Constitution of 1837: A progressive document that restored the principle of popular sovereignty.
• Constitution of 1845: A moderate document where sovereignty was shared between the Cortes and the Crown.

Although moderate and progressive liberal parties alternated in power, the moderate party dominated, often through corruption. Toward the end of her reign, the centrist Liberal Union party emerged. The liberal state under Isabel II was also characterized by the significant political influence of the army, as generals frequently issued pronunciamientos and acted as political figures.