Introduction to Psychology: Core Concepts and Research Methods

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Chapter 1: Foundations of Psychology

1. Definition of Psychology

• Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mind.
• Behavior: Observable actions.
• Mind: Internal experiences such as thoughts, emotions, and memories.
• Focuses on both normal and abnormal behavior.
• Uses the scientific method to make observations, analyze patterns, and develop theories.

2. Roots of Psychology

Psychology developed from philosophy and physiology.

• Philosophy: Questions about the mind and knowledge (e.g., Aristotle, Plato).
• Physiology: Study of the body and brain functions.

Key Historical Perspectives

1. Dualism – René Descartes (1596-1650)
   • Mind and body are separate but interact.
   • The pineal gland was thought to mediate the connection.
   • Introduced the idea of reflexes (automatic responses).
2. Natural Selection – Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
   • Inherited traits that help survival and reproduction are passed on.
   • Psychological traits (e.g., emotions, language ability) may have evolved for survival.

3. Major Psychological Theories

Each theory offers a different approach to understanding behavior and the mind.

Structuralism – Wilhelm Wundt & Edward Titchener

• First psychology lab (1879, Leipzig, Germany).
• Goal: Identify the basic structures of conscious experience.
• Method: Introspection – reporting sensations and thoughts.
• Criticism: Too subjective, unreliable.

Functionalism – William James & James Angell

• Goal: Understand the function of thoughts and behaviors in adapting to the environment.
• Influenced by Darwin’s natural selection.
• Led to a broader study of emotions, habits, and consciousness.

Behaviorism – John B. Watson & B.F. Skinner

• Only observable behavior matters.
• Mental processes (thoughts, feelings) are ignored.
• Key concepts:
  • Classical Conditioning (Watson): Learning by association (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs).
  • Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Behavior shaped by rewards & punishments.
• Impact: Dominated psychology for decades.

Psychoanalysis – Sigmund Freud

Freud’s psychoanalysis is an insight therapy in which the therapist analyzes memories and mental processes in order to correct problem behaviors.

• Focus on unconscious mind: Hidden desires, conflicts drive behavior.
• Key concepts:
  • Id, Ego, Superego: Three parts of personality.
  • Childhood experiences shape personality.
  • Dreams, slips of the tongue (“Freudian slips”) reveal unconscious thoughts.
• Criticism: Unscientific, difficult to test.

Humanism – Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, & Martin Seligman

• Reaction against Freud’s negative view of human nature. Humanistic psychology focuses on personal choice and free will.
• People are inherently good and strive for growth.
• Key concepts:
  • Self-actualization (Maslow): Reaching one’s full potential.
  • Client-centered therapy (Rogers): Therapists offer empathy and support.
  • Positive psychology (Seligman): Focus on strengths, well-being.

Cognitive Psychology

The word cognitive refers to the process of knowing or perceiving; as you may remember from our earlier discussion, cognitive psychologists are research psychologists who study processes such as memory, learning, and reasoning.

• Focuses on mental processes (thinking, memory, problem-solving).
• Influenced by the computer model of the mind.
• Key areas:
  • Perception
  • Memory
  • Decision-making

Evolutionary Psychology

• Applies Darwin’s natural selection to behavior.
• Traits like language, cooperation, and emotions evolved for survival.
• Example: Fear of snakes/spiders may have been an advantage.

Experiential Learning – Lev Vygotsky

• Learning happens through social interaction.
• Culture and society shape cognitive development.
• Scaffolding: Support from teachers/parents helps children learn.

4. Types of Psychologists & Their Focus

1. Clinical Psychologists
   • Diagnose and treat mental disorders (e.g., anxiety, depression).
   • Not medical doctors (cannot prescribe medication).
   • Psychiatrists (MDs) can prescribe medication.
2. Applied Psychologists
   • Use psychology to solve real-world problems.
   • Examples:
     • Industrial/Organizational Psychologists: Improve workplace efficiency.
     • Educational Psychologists: Study how people learn.
     • Forensic Psychologists: Apply psychology to law and crime. Human factors psychologists are instrumental in the design and engineering of new products. The technique of mapping ensures that the relationship is correct, such as the knobs on a stovetop turning on the appropriate burners.
3. Research Psychologists
   • Conduct experiments to understand behavior and mental processes.
   • Examples:
     • Cognitive psychologists: Study memory, thinking, problem-solving.
     • Social psychologists: Study how people influence each other.

Developmental psychologists study how behavior and internal mental processes change over the course of the life span.

5. Subfields of Psychology

• Behavioral neuroscience: Brain and behavior.
• Cognitive psychology: Thinking, memory.
• Developmental psychology: Growth over lifespan.
• Social psychology: How people interact.
• Health psychology: Mind-body connection.
• Personality psychology: Individual differences.

6. Empiricism vs. Nativism

• Empiricism (Aristotle, Locke)
  • Knowledge comes from experience.
  • We are born as a blank slate (tabula rasa).
• Nativism (Plato, Kant)
  • Some knowledge is innate.
  • Example: Babies have a built-in ability to learn language.

7. Historical Presence of Female Psychologists

Women made major contributions despite discrimination.

• Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930): First female APA president, studied memory.
• Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939): First woman to earn a PhD in psychology.
• Helen Thompson Woolley (1874–1947): Pioneered research on sex differences.
• Ruth Howard (1900–1997): First African American woman to earn a PhD in psychology.
• Martha Bernal (1931–2001): First Latina PhD psychologist, studied ethnic identity.

8. The Eclectic Approach in Clinical Practice

• No single theory explains everything.
• Therapists use multiple approaches (e.g., cognitive-behavioral, humanistic).
• Example: Treating depression may involve both talk therapy and medication.

9. Intersectionality in Psychology

• Examines how different social identities (race, gender, sexuality, etc.) overlap.
• Recognizes systemic inequalities that affect mental health.
• Example: A Black woman’s experience of discrimination may differ from a white woman’s.

10. Key Modern Trends in Psychology

1. Cognitive Revolution: Shift back to studying mental processes.
2. Neuroscience Advances: Brain imaging (fMRI) helps understand thoughts.
3. Evolutionary Psychology: How evolution shapes behavior.
4. Cultural Psychology: How culture influences behavior.
5. Big Data & Replication Crisis: Ensuring findings are reliable. It is easier to gain access to the information needed to understand behavior and thought processes with the use of big data. This can many times replace the use of traditional collection methods.

Final Summary

• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mind.
• Different theories offer different explanations of behavior.
• Modern psychology integrates multiple perspectives.
• Psychologists work in various fields, from therapy to research.
• Historical discrimination existed, but women & minorities contributed greatly.
• Intersectionality and cultural psychology are important in today’s research.

Once the discipline of psychology was established by Wundt in 1879, psychologists struggled with the proper way to characterize and study the mind. Structuralists, such as Wundt and Titchener, believed the world of immediate experience could be broken down into elements, much as a chemist seeks to understand a chemical compound. The functionalists argued that the proper focus should be on the function and purpose of behavior. The behaviorists rejected the world of immediate experience in favor of the exclusive study of behavior. Added to the mix were the insights of Sigmund Freud, with his emphasis on the unconscious mind, and the arguments of the humanists, who strongly advocated free will and the power of personal choice. Each of the early psychological perspectives remains influential to a certain extent today, but most modern psychologists adopt an eclectic approach—they pick and choose from the perspectives. The study of behavior remains of primary importance, but the world of inner experience is also considered fair game for study, as evidenced by the cognitive revolution and by recent developments in the biological sciences.

The possibility that some of our thoughts and actions are controlled by innate mental mechanisms, acquired through natural selection, is also being actively pursued by evolutionary psychologists. Psychologists also now actively investigate the role that cultural factors play in their attempts to explain behavior and mind. Finally, in recent years, concerns have been raised about the replicability of psychological findings, and new techniques are being developed to eliminate these concerns.

Chapter 2: Research Methods – Detailed Study Notes

1. Steps of the Scientific Method

Psychology is a science and relies on the scientific method to study behavior and mental processes.

The four major steps of the scientific method:

1. Observe: Identify a phenomenon and record observations systematically.
2. Detect Regularities: Look for patterns in behavior.
3. Generate a Hypothesis: Develop a testable prediction about the relationship between variables.
4. Observe to Test the Hypothesis: Conduct experiments or studies to determine if the hypothesis is supported.

• Hypotheses must be specific and testable (often in if-then statements).
• Observations anchor the process, both starting and ending research. Observing and Describing Behavior, Predicting Behavior, Explaining Behavior, Treating Participants

2. Operational Definition

• Definition: A precise definition of a concept in terms of how it is measured.
• Example:
  • Instead of saying “intelligence,” an operational definition could be “score on an IQ test.”
  • Instead of “memory,” an operational definition could be “number of words correctly recalled from a list.”
• Purpose: Ensures clarity and replicability in experiments.

3. Theory vs. Hypothesis

• Theory: A broad explanation of how and why phenomena occur based on previous research.
• Hypothesis: A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory.

Example:
Theory: Watching violent TV increases aggression.
Hypothesis: If children watch violent cartoons, they will display more aggressive behaviors than those who watch non-violent cartoons.

4. Three Primary Research Designs

Psychologists use different research methods based on their goals.

1. Descriptive Research

• Goal: To observe and describe behavior.
• Methods:
  • Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in its natural setting without intervention. Participant observation: observer attempts to become a part of the activities being studied.
  • Problem: Reactivity—subjects may behave differently when being watched.
  • Case Study: In-depth analysis of a single individual or small group.
  • Limitation: Low external validity (findings may not apply to others).
  • Surveys: Questionnaires or interviews that collect data from many people.
  • Issue: Sampling bias and social desirability bias (participants may misrepresent themselves).
• Psychological tests: Measure individual differences among people.
  • Advantages: Potential practical uses; assess basics of mind.
  • Disadvantages: Difficulties in test construction and validation.
  • Achievement tests measure a person’s current level of knowledge or competence in a particular subject (such as mathematics or psychology).
  • Aptitude tests measure the potential for success in a given profession or area of study. Researchers also use intelligence and personality tests to classify ability, or to characterize a person’s tendencies to act in consistent ways.

2. Correlational Research

• Goal: To predict relationships between two variables.
• Correlation Coefficient (r): Measures strength & direction of a relationship.
• Ranges from -1.00 to +1.00
• Positive correlation (r > 0): Both variables increase together (e.g., more studying → higher GPA).
• Negative correlation (r < 0): One variable increases while the other decreases (e.g., more time on social media → lower GPA).
• Zero correlation (r = 0): No relationship (e.g., shoe size and intelligence).

Problems with Correlational Research

• Correlation ≠ Causation: Just because two things are related doesn’t mean one causes the other.
• Third-Variable Problem: A hidden variable may be influencing the relationship.
• Example: Ice cream sales and drowning rates are correlated, but hot weather is the real cause. Use big data.

3. Experimental Research

• Goal: To determine cause and effect by controlling variables.
• Key Components:
  • Independent Variable (IV): The variable the experimenter manipulates.
  • Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome that is measured.
  • Experimental Group: Receives the manipulation (e.g., watching violent TV).
  • Control Group: Does not receive the manipulation (e.g., watching non-violent TV).
  • Confounding Variables: Uncontrolled factors that might influence results (e.g., different ads in a subliminal message experiment).
  • Internal validity: The extent to which an experiment has effectively controlled for confounding variables; internally valid experiments allow for the determination of causality.
  • Random Assignment: Participants are assigned to groups randomly to reduce bias.
  • Placebo Effect: When participants believe they are receiving treatment and show improvement.
  • Replicability: Whether the results of a study can be repeated with a separate sample or under slightly different conditions. Specificity.

5. Types of Conclusions from Research Designs

• Descriptive Research: Can describe behavior, but not determine causality.
• Correlational Research: Can predict relationships, but cannot establish cause.
• Experimental Research: Only method that can determine causation.

6. Independent Variable vs. Dependent Variable

• Independent Variable (IV): What the researcher manipulates.
• Dependent Variable (DV): What the researcher measures.

Example:
Hypothesis: Drinking coffee improves memory.
IV = Amount of coffee consumed (manipulated).
DV = Performance on a memory test (measured).

7. Random Sampling vs. Random Assignment

• Random Sampling: Every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the study (used in surveys).
• Random Assignment: Once participants are selected, they are randomly assigned to experimental or control groups (used in experiments).

8. Ethics of Research

Research must follow ethical guidelines:

1. Informed Consent: Participants must be fully informed and voluntarily agree.
2. Confidentiality: Researchers must protect participants’ identities and data.
3. Debriefing: After deception (if used), participants must be informed of the true nature of the study.
4. Protection from Harm: Participants should not be subjected to harm.
5. Use of Animals: Researchers must minimize animal suffering.

9. Types of Validity

• Internal Validity: The extent to which the experiment controls for confounding variables, ensuring the IV is what causes changes in the DV.
• External Validity: The extent to which findings generalize to the real world.
• Ecological Validity: The extent to which the research setting resembles real life.

10. Measures of Central Tendency

Used to summarize data.

1. Mean (Average)
   • Formula: Sum of all scores ÷ Number of scores.
   • Affected by outliers.
2. Median (Middle Value)
   • Arrange scores in order and pick the middle one.
   • Not affected by outliers.
3. Mode (Most Frequent Score)
   • Most commonly occurring value.
   • Can be more than one mode if multiple values appear equally often.

Researchers use inferential statistics to decide (1) whether the behaviors recorded in a sample are representative of some larger population, or (2) whether the differences among observations can be attributed to chance or to some other factor. Through inferential statistics, researchers try to determine the likelihood, or probability, that results could have occurred by chance.

How Outliers Affect Central Tendency:

• Mean is most affected by extreme values.
• Median is less affected.
• Mode is not affected at all.

Chapter 3: Biological Processes

1. Types of Neurons

Neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting information through electrochemical signals.

Three Major Types of Neurons:

1. Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons)
   • Function: Carry information from sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
   • Example: Detecting heat from a flame and sending signals to the spinal cord.
2. Interneurons
   • Function: Act as connectors between sensory and motor neurons, facilitating communication.
   • Most abundant type of neuron in the nervous system.
3. Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons)
   • Function: Carry signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands, allowing movement.
   • Example: Moving your hand away from a flame after sensing heat.

Glial Cells:

• Support neurons by removing waste, filling spaces, and insulating axons with myelin sheath (an insulating material that protects the axon and helps to speed up neural transmission).
• Play a role in learning, memory, and even brain disorders like Parkinson’s and schizophrenia. A reflex requires no input from the brain.

2. Neuron Structure

Neurons have four main parts:

1. Dendrites – Receive messages from other neurons.
2. Soma (Cell Body) – Houses the nucleus and processes genetic material and information.
3. Axon – Transmits signals away from the soma.
4. Terminal Buttons – Release neurotransmitters into the synapse, the small gap between neurons.

3. Action Potential

• Definition: A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon when a neuron fires.
• Resting Potential: The neuron’s stable, negative charge when inactive.
• Depolarization: When excitatory signals cause sodium (Na⁺) ions to enter, making the neuron more positive. Hyperpolarization occurs when a neuron’s interior becomes more negative than its resting potential, making it less likely to fire an action potential and helping regulate neural activity.
• Threshold: If enough excitatory messages are received, the neuron fires.
• All-or-None Principle: Once the threshold is reached, the neuron fires completely or not at all.
• Refractory Period: After firing, the neuron temporarily cannot fire again.

4. Synaptic Transmission and Neuronal Communication

• Synapse: The gap between neurons where neurotransmitters carry messages.
• Process:
  1. Action potential reaches terminal buttons.
  2. Neurotransmitters are released into the synapse.
  3. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the next neuron.
  4. The signal is either excitatory (causes firing) or inhibitory (prevents firing).

5. Neurotransmitters

When the message is excitatory, the neurotransmitter causes channels in the cell wall to open, allowing positive sodium ions to flow into the receiving cell. When the message is inhibitory, negative chloride ions can enter the cell, and positive potassium ions are allowed to leave. Neurotransmitters control mood, movement, and mental processes.

• Agonists: Enhance neurotransmitter action (e.g., nicotine mimics acetylcholine).
• Antagonists: Block neurotransmitter action (e.g., curare blocks acetylcholine).

6. Nervous System

Central vs. Peripheral Nervous System

• Central Nervous System (CNS):
  • Includes brain and spinal cord.
  • Controls decision-making, thought, and reflexes.
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
  • Connects the CNS to the rest of the body.
  • Divided into somatic and autonomic systems.

Somatic vs. Autonomic Nervous System

• Somatic Nervous System:
  • Controls voluntary movements (e.g., raising your hand).
  • Sends sensory information to the brain.
• Autonomic Nervous System:
  • Controls involuntary functions (e.g., heart rate, digestion).
  • Divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Nervous System

• Sympathetic (“Fight or Flight”):
  • Increases heart rate, breathing, and energy use.
  • Prepares body for stress or danger.
• Parasympathetic (“Rest and Digest”):
  • Slows heart rate, lowers blood pressure.
  • Promotes digestion and energy storage.

7. Types of Brain Imaging/Measurement

• Electroencephalograph (EEG) – Measures brain’s electrical activity.
• CT Scan – Uses X-rays to detect brain structure abnormalities.
• PET Scan – Shows active brain areas using radioactive glucose.
• MRI – Produces high-resolution images of brain structure.
• fMRI – Tracks brain function by detecting oxygen use.
• TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation) – Uses magnetic fields to temporarily stimulate or disrupt brain activity.
• Optogenetics – A technique that uses light to activate and control neurons that have been genetically engineered to respond to light.

8. Brain Areas Reviewed in Lecture

Hindbrain (Basic Life Support)

• Medulla – Controls heart rate and breathing.
• Pons – Bridges sensory and motor signals.
• Cerebellum – Coordinates balance and movement.

Midbrain (Relay Station)

• Tectum & Colliculi – Process sensory information.
• Substantia Nigra – Produces dopamine (related to Parkinson’s).

Forebrain (Higher Mental Functions)

• Thalamus – Sensory relay center.
• Hypothalamus – Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, sexual behavior.

Limbic System

1. Amygdala – Controls emotion and fear.
2. Hippocampus – Essential for memory formation.

Cerebral Cortex (Complex Thought)

• Frontal Lobe – Decision-making, problem-solving, movement (contains motor cortex, Broca’s area for language).
• Parietal Lobe – Processes touch and sensory integration.
• Temporal Lobe – Processes sound and language.
• Occipital Lobe – Processes visual information.

9. Corpus Callosum and Lateralization

• Corpus Callosum: Connects left and right hemispheres, allowing communication.
• Lateralization:
  • Left Hemisphere: Language, logic, writing.
  • Right Hemisphere: Spatial tasks, facial recognition, emotions.
• Split-brain patients: When the corpus callosum is cut, they cannot name objects seen in the left visual field.

10. Endocrine System

The communication of the nervous system is mostly localized, but the hormones involved within the endocrine system have widespread communication capabilities. Communication of the endocrine system can last much longer than neural communication as well.

• Hormones regulate growth, metabolism, and behavior.
• Pituitary Gland (Master Gland) – Controls other glands.
• Adrenal Glands – Release stress hormones (cortisol, adrenaline).
• Thyroid – Controls metabolism.
• Gonads (Testes/Ovaries) – Release sex hormones.

11. Genes, Chromosomes, and Epigenetics

• Genes: Segments of DNA that determine traits.
• Chromosomes: Structures containing DNA (Humans have 23 pairs).
• Epigenetics: Environment can influence gene expression (e.g., stress can alter genetic activity without changing DNA).
• Family studies: The similarities and differences among biological (blood) relatives are studied to help discover the role heredity plays in physical or psychological traits.
• Twin studies: Identical twins, who share genetic material, are compared to fraternal twins to determine the roles heredity and environment play in psychological traits.

Chapter 11: Personality – Detailed Study Notes

1. Definition of Personality

Personality: A set of characteristics that distinguish individuals from one another and lead to consistent behaviors across situations.

• The study of personality is fundamentally about individual differences.
• Traits: Predispositions to respond in certain ways that define people and allow for predictability in behavior.

Trait theories are systems for assessing how people differ, particularly how people differ in their tendencies to act consistently across situations. As a general rule, trait theories use a psychometric approach—that is, they seek to identify stable individual differences by analyzing the performances of large groups of people on rating tests or questionnaires.

2. Types of Personality Tests

Psychologists use different tests to measure personality traits.

1. Self-Report Inventories

• Definition: Questionnaires where people rate their own behaviors, thoughts, and feelings.
• Examples:
  • Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) – used in clinical diagnosis.
  • NEO-PI-R (Revised NEO Personality Inventory) – measures the Big Five personality traits.
  • 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) – based on Cattell’s model.
• Advantages: Standardized, easy to administer, widely used.
• Disadvantages: People may lie or present themselves in a socially desirable way.

2. Projective Tests

• Definition: Ambiguous stimuli presented to reveal unconscious aspects of personality.
• Examples:
  • Rorschach Inkblot Test – individuals interpret inkblots.
  • Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – individuals create stories about ambiguous pictures.
• Advantages: Uncovers unconscious conflicts, useful in therapy.
• Disadvantages: Hard to interpret, subjective, less reliable.

3. Trait Theory and the Big Five-Factor Model

Trait theories focus on identifying consistent characteristics in people.

Factor Analysis in Personality Research

• Factor analysis: A statistical method used to find clusters of related personality traits.
• Raymond Cattell: Identified 16 source traits.
• Hans Eysenck: Proposed three superfactors:
  • Extroversion – outgoing vs. reserved.
  • Neuroticism – anxious vs. emotionally stable.
  • Psychoticism – insensitive vs. caring.

Big Five Personality Traits (OCEAN)

Most widely accepted model:

1. Openness – Imaginative, creative vs. conventional, close-minded.
2. Conscientiousness – Organized, disciplined vs. careless, impulsive.
3. Extraversion – Sociable, energetic vs. reserved, introverted.
4. Agreeableness – Trusting, compassionate vs. suspicious, uncooperative.
5. Neuroticism – Anxious, emotionally unstable vs. calm, resilient.

• The Big Five are consistent across cultures.
• Traits predict behavior across different situations.

4. Personality Development Theories

Psychodynamic Approach (Freud)

• Freud’s theory: Personality is shaped by unconscious forces and early childhood experiences.

Regions of the Mind

1. Conscious – What we are aware of.
2. Preconscious – Memories and thoughts that can be accessed.
3. Unconscious – Hidden urges, repressed memories.

Structure of Personality

1. Id – Primitive urges, operates on the pleasure principle.
2. Ego – Balances the Id and Superego, follows the reality principle.
3. Superego – Moral conscience, internalized societal norms.

Defense Mechanisms (Ego’s Coping Strategies)

• Repression – Pushing memories into the unconscious.
• Denial – Refusing to accept reality.
• Projection – Attributing one’s feelings to others.
• Rationalization – Justifying behavior with logical explanations.
• Displacement – Redirecting emotions to a safer target.
• Sublimation – Channeling impulses into socially acceptable behaviors.

Psychosexual Stages

1. Oral Stage (0-1 year) – Fixation leads to dependency, smoking, overeating.
2. Anal Stage (1-3 years) – Fixation leads to excessive neatness or messiness.
3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years) – Oedipus and Electra complexes.
4. Latency Stage (6-12 years) – Social development, repression of urges.
5. Genital Stage (12+ years) – Mature relationships and sexual identity.

Other Psychodynamic Theorists

Alfred Adler

• Inferiority complex: Individuals strive to overcome feelings of inadequacy.
• Principle of Social Interest: Human behavior is motivated by social relationships.

Carl Jung

• Collective Unconscious: A shared, inherited part of the unconscious mind.
• Archetypes: Universal symbols (e.g., Hero, Mother, Shadow).

Karen Horney

• Criticized Freud’s male-centered theories.
• Emphasized social and cultural influences on personality.

5. Humanistic Theories

• People have free will and strive for self-growth.

Carl Rogers

• Self-concept: One’s perception of themselves.
• Incongruence: Mismatch between self-concept and actual experiences.
• Ideal self: Who a person aspires to be.
• Positive regard: We value what others think of us and consistently seek others’ approval, love, and companionship.
• Unconditional Positive Regard: Acceptance and love from others, regardless of actions.

Abraham Maslow

• Hierarchy of Needs:
  1. Physiological (food, water).
  2. Safety (security, stability).
  3. Love/Belonging (relationships).
  4. Esteem (achievement, respect).
  5. Self-Actualization (reaching full potential).

6. Social-Cognitive Approach

• Personality is shaped by experience and thought processes.

Albert Bandura

• Self-system: A set of cognitive processes guiding behavior.
• Self-efficacy: Belief in one’s ability to succeed.
• Reciprocal Determinism: Personality results from interactions between:
  1. Behavior.
  2. Cognitive beliefs.
  3. Environment.

Julian Rotter

• Social Learning Theory: Behavior is shaped by expectations of outcomes.
• Locus of Control:
  • Internal – Belief that one controls their fate.
  • External – Belief that fate is determined by outside forces.

7. Person-Situation Debate

• Debate on whether personality traits or situations dictate behavior.
• Self-monitoring: The degree to which people adjust behavior based on social context.
  • High self-monitors adapt easily, like politicians.
  • Low self-monitors remain consistent in all settings.