The Second Industrial Revolution and Global Imperialism (1870-1914)

1. Political Systems and International Relations (1870-1914)

1.1. Political Systems

Between 1870 and 1914, two primary political systems emerged:

• Parliamentary systems: Prevalent in Western Europe and the United States. Most nations adopted universal male suffrage. The suffragette movement advocated for women's voting rights, which were approved in Finland (1906) and Norway (1909).
• Autocratic systems: Persisted in Central and Eastern Europe:
  • Austro-Hungarian Empire: Organized as a dual monarchy since 1867, sharing only the Emperor.
  • Russian Empire: Despite the emancipation of serfs in 1861, the Tsar retained absolute power.
  • Ottoman Empire: Remained an autocratic monarchy.

1.2. The International Situation

Key global powers included:

• United Kingdom: The leading commercial power during the Victorian Era (1837-1901), though it lost industrial primacy to Germany and the United States.
• Germany: Became the second industrial power under William I.
• France: Remained a significant world power.
• United States: Following the Civil War, it colonized central prairies and became a leading industrial force.
• Japan: During the Meiji Era, it transitioned from a feudal to a constitutional monarchy, becoming a major Pacific power through economic reforms.

1.3. European Alliance Systems

• Bismarckian Alliance Systems (1871-1890): A series of secret alliances designed to isolate France and prevent a Franco-Russian coalition.
• Armed Peace (1891-1914): Following the collapse of Bismarck's system, Europe rearmed into two blocks:
  • Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
  • Triple Entente: France, Russia, and the United Kingdom.

2. The Second Industrial Revolution

2.1. New Sources of Energy

The late 19th century saw the rise of:

• Oil: Enabled the creation of the internal combustion engine.
• Electricity: The invention of the accumulator and transformer allowed for lighting and energy production, decoupling industries from proximity to energy sources.

2.2. Changes in Work Organization

Mass production necessitated new methods:

• Taylorism: Developed by Frederick Taylor; work was divided into small, timed tasks with production incentives.
• Fordism: Developed by Henry Ford; utilized the assembly line and conveyor belts, significantly increasing productivity and lowering costs.

2.3. Leading Industrial Sectors

• Metallurgy: New metals like copper (electrical industry) and aluminum (produced via electricity) became vital.
• Chemical Industry: Produced plastics, dyes, synthetic fibers, pharmaceuticals, and explosives.
• Other sectors: Electric equipment, mechanics (sewing machines, typewriters, bicycles), textiles, and food canning.

3. Economic Development and Capitalism

3.1. Transport and Communication

• Transport: Electric railways, trams, automobiles (Benz, 1886), and airplanes (Wright Brothers, 1903).
• Infrastructures: The Panama Canal (1904) reduced transport costs; railway expansion facilitated westward growth in the US and eastward growth in Russia.
• Communications: Telephone (Meucci, 1860), phonograph (Edison, 1878), cinematograph (Lumiere Brothers, 1895), and radio (Marconi-Tesla, 1897).

3.3. The Birth of Finance Capitalism

Increased financial needs led to:

• Financial concentration: Large banks (e.g., Credit Lyonnais) began granting industrial loans and holding shares.
• Corporate concentration: The rise of cartels (price-fixing groups), trusts (production chain ownership), and holdings (parent companies).

4. Demographic Growth

Between 1870 and 1914, the European population grew from 300 to 440 million. Key impacts included:

• Emigration: Driven by better transport, people moved from the UK, Ireland, and Scandinavia to the Americas and Australia, reducing social conflict at home.
• Urbanization: Cities like Paris and London exceeded one million residents, benefiting from improved hygiene (sewers) and technological innovations (electric lighting and trams).

5. Imperialism: Causes and Forms of Domination

5.1. Causes of Imperialism

• Political/Strategic: International prestige and control of trade routes.
• Demographic: Relieving unemployment and social tension in the metropolis.
• Economic: Need for raw materials, new markets, and cheap labor.
• Ideological: Social Darwinism, which proclaimed the superiority of the white race and a "civilizing mission."

5.2. Forms of Colonial Rule

• Concessions: Commercial/political advantages (e.g., China).
• Protectorates: Indigenous government under colonial control of foreign policy and resources (e.g., Egypt, Morocco).
• Colonies: Territories under direct sovereignty:
  • Settler colonies: Large foreign populations with self-administration (e.g., Canada, Australia).
  • Exploitation colonies: Administered to extract resources (e.g., India).

6. Colonial Expansion

6.1. The Scramble for Africa

The 1884 Berlin Congress established that only "effective control" guaranteed possession. This led to the partition of Africa among European powers, with the UK and France seeking continuous territorial empires.

6.2. Imperialism in Asia and Oceania

Asia saw the division of China and Persia into spheres of influence. The UK held India and Burma; France held Indochina; the Netherlands held Indonesia; Russia held Siberia; Japan held Korea and Manchuria; and the US took the Philippines.

6.3. Consequences of Imperialism

• Metropolis: Gained wealth and social peace but faced increased international conflict.
• Colonies: Suffered loss of independence, arbitrary borders, economic exploitation (export-based agriculture), and the erosion of local cultures.

Chronology and Glossary

Key Dates: 1870-1914 (Imperialism/Second Industrial Revolution), 1868 (Meiji Restoration), 1884-5 (Berlin Conference), 1898 (Fashoda/Disaster of '98), 1899-1901 (Boxer Rebellion), 1848 (Seneca Falls), 1875 (German Socialist Party), 1889 (Second International).

Definitions: Metropolis (ruling power), Monroe Doctrine (US policy against European intervention), Scramble for Africa (division of the continent), Armed Peace (pre-WWI tension), Triple Entente/Alliance (opposing military blocks).