Imperialism and Global Colonial Expansion (1870-1914)

Imperialism and Its Causes

From 1870, European colonial expansion turned to Africa, Asia, and the Pacific and entered a new phase known as Imperialism. Unlike the previous form of Colonialism, whose main objective was to dominate the economic resources of the colonies, Imperialism implied the military, political, and economic control of the European minority over the dominated territories.

Key Drivers of the New Colonial Momentum

The new colonial momentum was due to different causes:

• Political and strategic: The possession of colonies assured the power and the international prestige of countries or allowed trade routes and strategic territories to be controlled.
• Demographic: The colonies provided territories where excess population could be sent in order to reduce unemployment and relieve internal social tensions.
• Economic: Increased production brought about by the Second Industrial Revolution required having territories which could supply raw materials for industry and purchase the manufactured products without customs barriers. Furthermore, colonies provided cheap labor and places to invest capital.
• Ideological: Certain ideologies manipulated the ideas of Darwin (Social Darwinism) and proclaimed the superiority of the white race along with its "mission" to "civilize" the rest of the world.

The Forms of Colonial Rule

The major imperialist powers were Great Britain and France. They were soon joined by other European countries like Germany, Belgium, Italy, Spain, and Russia and by non-European countries like the United States and Japan. These powers used diverse forms of colonial rule:

• Concessions: These were commercial advantages obtained from independent countries, such as the transfer of ports for trade. This was the case in China, whose territory was divided among the great powers into "areas of influence."
• Protectorates: These maintained their indigenous governments, but the colonial power controlled foreign policy, the army, and the exploitation of certain resources. This was the case in India and Egypt.
• Colonies: These were territories under the sovereignty of the metropole.