Imperialism and 19th Century Colonial Expansion Explained

1. What is Imperialism?

Imperialism

Imperialism, or imperial colonialism, is the configuration of empires. Colonies are dependent on the metropolis, and indigenous peoples within these colonies are often considered second-class subjects.

Spain and Portugal were the first colonial empires, following the discovery and conquest of America, which resulted in genocide against the indigenous population. Empires formed in the 19th century differed from earlier models; the former emerged from a feudal economy, while the latter developed from a capitalist economy. Expansion was primarily driven by France and the UK throughout the century, characterized by intense Franco-English rivalry and the desire of other European nations to establish overseas colonies.

2. Reasons for 19th Century Colonial Expansion

• Demographic factors: During the 19th century, significant growth in the European population led to an increased demand for raw materials and food. High unemployment rates prompted a major migration, with approximately 40 million Europeans moving to other continents in search of opportunities.
• Economic factors: Industrialized European countries sought new markets, particularly after the economic crisis of 1873, which was followed by renewed protectionism. Colonies served as secure, forced markets for industrial products, as well as sources of raw materials and cheap labor. The metropolis also benefited from capital loans, with surplus capital invested in infrastructure such as train networks and harbors.
• Political factors: 19th-century nationalism promoted colonial expansion. International law at the time classified territories without European presence as "free." The competition for these colonies became a significant contributing factor to the outbreak of World War I.
• Ideological factors: Religion and science were used to justify colonial expansion and the subjugation of indigenous populations. Imperialist doctrine was rooted in social Darwinism—a racist discourse lacking scientific validity—which asserted the inequality of human races and the inherent superiority of white people. This ideology was used to justify the conquest and "civilizing" of the rest of the world.