Immanuel Kant: Ethics, Categorical Imperatives and Moral Duty

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804): A Life of Precision

Immanuel Kant was a man of manners who followed a very precise routine. The people of his city would set their clocks by his afternoon walk, as he passed the same place at the same time every day. He led a life that was, strangely, very interesting; he never married, never fell ill, and never left his hometown in East Prussia. Despite this, Immanuel Kant was a profound thinker who lived until the age of 80.

The Critique of Practical Reason

The Critique of Practical Reason can be divided into three sections:

• Anecdotal Origins: Kant explains that he only arrived late for class twice: once when the French Revolution began in 1789, and once when he was fascinated by the works of Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
• The Ethical Revolution: Inspired by Rousseau, Kant proposed that nothing in life is good or bad in itself; rather, the intention behind an act is what matters. According to Kant, every act is inherently neutral. He identified two aspects of an action:
  • Material Aspect: The action itself.
  • Formal Aspect: The interior disposition or intention, which is necessary for moral freedom.
• Critique of Traditional Ethics: Kant argued that traditional ethical claims are often false because they lack rational justification. He categorized these as heteronomous ethics—systems based on external authority, empirical content, or the promise of rewards and punishments. These rely on hypothetical imperatives (e.g., "If you are good, you will be happy").

Categorical Imperatives and Moral Autonomy

According to Kant, true ethics must be formal (focusing on intent) and autonomous (based on the freedom to choose). These are expressed through categorical imperatives:

• Universal Law: "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law."
• Humanity as an End: "Treat all human beings not as a means, but as an end in itself."

One must act in a disinterested manner, where the only motivation is the duty to respect and love. This creates a vital distinction between acting legally and acting ethically, marking Kant as a true revolutionary in moral philosophy.