Humanism, Political Theory, and Modern Science

The Renaissance Era

The Renaissance spanned from the fifteenth century until the seventeenth century. It marked a shift from the medieval religious sense of loss to the humanism that replaced Theocentrism.

Political and Geographical Changes

Profound political changes occurred during this time. The birth of states moderated the rise of the bourgeoisie, a process that ended with their triumph during the French Revolution. Geographical discoveries also took place, such as the introduction of the potato.

From a philosophical point of view, there was a reappearance of many Greco-Roman works that were unknown during the Middle Ages. This era also saw the emergence of a new science focused on astronomy and physics.

Political and Social Theories

Niccolò Machiavelli

In his manual for governing, The Prince, Machiavelli poses his greatest maxim: "the end justifies the means." He argues that when ruling, one should not take into account any ethical considerations, but focus only on conserving power. His vision of man is that he is selfish and only looks for his own benefit; therefore, the government should never trust anyone.

Thomas More

Thomas More followed the Platonic idea of imagining a better world. He coined the term "Utopia," which served as the title of his work. It described a perfect society characterized by peaceful coexistence and moral and physical welfare.

Religious Reformations

Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther caused a rift and formed the Protestant Church.

Counter-Reformation: The Council of Trent raised several objectives: to morally reform the church and to establish Catholic dogma in opposition to Protestantism.

Francis Bacon and the New Science

Francis Bacon, a philosopher of science, was certain that man could dominate nature, but only by understanding it. He spoke of a new method in his work, Novum Organum.

• Inductive Method: This method moves from experience and the observation of nature to reach the laws that explain it. Before applying it, one must eliminate prejudices.
• Aristotle's Organon: This utilized the deductive method (syllogism), a form of reasoning where the conclusion is inferred from the premises.

Example of the Inductive Method: If animals A, B, and C are composed of cells, and animals A, B, and C are cats, then all cats are composed of cells.

Example of the Deductive Method: If all living beings are composed of cells and all cats are living beings, then all cats are composed of cells.

The Scientific Revolution

Copernicus: He proposed the heliocentric theory. He faced objections based on simple interpretations of the Bible, which contained many passages speaking of the immobility of the Earth.

Giordano Bruno: He continued the thought of Copernicus.

Galileo Galilei: He came into conflict with the Church for following the idea of heliocentrism, famously stating, "Eppur si muove" (And yet it moves).

His Experimental Method: Galileo used mathematics as a tool for research and the formulation of hypotheses to explain natural events. This is known as the hypothetico-deductive method. It involves experimental testing or resolution to contrast reality with the consequences deduced from the hypothesis.