Human Anatomy: Respiratory, Digestive and Cardiac Systems

Respiratory System Anatomy

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Upper respiratory: Nose, pharynx

Lower respiratory: Larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs

Sinuses: Lighten the skull, act as a resonance chamber, and produce mucus.

The Epiglottis and Pharynx

Epiglottis: Consists of 9 pieces of cartilage, including the thyroid cartilage. The epiglottis itself has a stem and leaf structure.

Oropharynx: Extends from the nasal cavity to the larynx. The pharynx is divided into the Nasopharynx, Oropharynx, and Laryngopharynx.

Pleural Cavity: Covered by 2 layers of the pleural membrane. The pleural cavity functions to decrease friction at the lungs.

Mechanics of Ventilation and Respiration

Ventilation: One of the four respiration processes. It is the movement of air into and out of the lungs (breathing). It requires the diaphragm and intercostal muscles. Increasing the volume of the cavity leads to the expansion of the lungs.

Principles of Gas Pressure

Pressure is caused by colliding gas molecules. When the volume of a closed space increases, the gas pressure decreases. Gases flow down their concentration gradient.

External respiration: O2 diffuses into the blood and CO2 diffuses into the alveolar sac. This process converts deoxygenated blood to oxygenated blood. It occurs in the lungs between the alveoli and the pulmonary artery via diffusion (passive transport).

Internal respiration: The exchange between blood in systemic capillaries and tissue cells. Blood loses O2 and gains CO2. Tissues consume O2 and release CO2 in the production of ATP. Path: Left Ventricle of the heart -> aorta -> systemic arteries -> systemic capillaries (exchange of gases) with tissue cells.

Cellular respiration: The process where O2 is used by our cells to produce ATP. A waste product of this process is carbon dioxide. This takes place in the mitochondria.

Lung Volumes and Digestive Processes

Tidal Volume: The amount of air which is inspired or expired in each average breath.

Peristalsis: Propels food (bolus) forward and mixes contents in the stomach.

Segmentation: Mixes food and allows for absorption in the small intestine.

Gastrointestinal Tract Layers

Muscularis: Layers of tissue in the GI tract (from inner to outer):

1. Mucosa
2. Submucosa
3. Muscularis
4. Serosa

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Aquaculture and Heart Anatomy

Aquaculture: Includes algae. It is an active human effort to maintain or increase organisms, not just take them.

Endocardium: Composed of endothelium and connective tissue.

Myocardium: Cardiac muscle tissue.

Aorta: Connected to the Left Ventricle. It is thicker-walled and pumps oxygenated blood to the body via the ascending aorta.

Cardiac Chambers and Valves

Vena cava: The Right Atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body via the Superior and Inferior vena cavae, and from the heart via the coronary sinus.

Bicuspid valve: Also known as the mitral valve (2 cusps); located between the Left atrium and Left ventricle.

Tricuspid valve: (3 cusps); located between the Right atrium and Right ventricle.

Semilunar Valves

• Pulmonary semilunar valve: Right ventricle to Pulmonary trunk.
• Aortic semilunar valve: Left ventricle to Aorta.