The French Revolution: Causes, Stages, and Outcomes

The French Revolution: From Monarchy to Republic

Causes of the Revolution

France faced a deep economic and social crisis in the late 18th century. Poor harvests led to rising prices, and the bourgeoisie felt increasingly marginalized politically. They were ready to end the Old Regime and absolutism. The monarchy was also in crisis. The proposed solution was a tax reform that would require the privileged classes (nobles and clergy) to pay taxes.

The Estates General and the National Assembly

King Louis XVI summoned the Estates General, where each estate had one vote. The Third Estate, representing the commoners, was unhappy with this system and demanded double representation, joint deliberation, and individual voting. The king granted them double representation, but not the other demands. Consequently, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly and vowed to create a constitution reflecting the will of the majority of the French people.

The Storming of the Bastille and the Great Fear

To prevent royal troops from stopping the bourgeois deputies, the people of Paris took to the streets and stormed the Bastille prison, a symbol of royal authority. They were ready to defend the revolutionary process. The revolution spread to the countryside, known as the "Great Fear," where noble palaces and buildings were burned. The Assembly decreed the abolition of feudal privileges and promulgated the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

Stages of the Revolution

Following the creation of the Assembly, the process of political transformation of France began. The opposition of the king and the privileged classes led the revolution through several stages:

The Constitutional Monarchy

This stage was supported by the conservative bourgeoisie, who aspired to reach an agreement with the king and the privileged to abolish the Old Regime and impose liberalism. Key features: The king retained veto power. Church property was confiscated, declared national property, and sold to individuals. While the bourgeoisie was largely satisfied, the nobles, clergy, and monarchy were not, due to the loss of privileges, dismemberment of their estates, and loss of power, respectively. The popular sectors were also unhappy with the limited suffrage. Radical revolutionaries like the Girondins, Jacobins, and Cordeliers emerged from these dissatisfied groups.

The Democratic Republic

This stage was driven by the radical bourgeoisie and the popular sectors, who sought a more profound transformation of society towards democracy and equality. Key features:

• First led by the Girondins, then by the Jacobins.
• Universal male suffrage was implemented.
• The National Assembly became the National Convention.
• A mass conscription (levée en masse) was instituted for the army.

The Bourgeois Republic

This stage marked a return to power for the conservative bourgeoisie, who re-established the dominance of property owners. Key features: The population grew dissatisfied with the Jacobins, leading to the Thermidorian Reaction, a coup that resulted in the execution of Jacobin leaders and the proclamation of a bourgeois republic. A new constitution was drafted, granting executive power to a collegial government called the Directory. Census suffrage was restored, and the legislature was divided into two chambers: the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Ancients. This government persecuted the Jacobins and restored many of the measures from the first phase of the revolution. A young general named Napoleon Bonaparte eventually led a coup, replacing the Directory and establishing the Consulate.