Ferdinand VII of Spain: Reign, Absolutism, and Liberal Triennium

Ferdinand VII of Spain: A Tumultuous Reign

In 1813, peace was signed between France and Spain in Valençay, recognizing Napoleon's King Ferdinand VII of Spain.

Upon his arrival, Ferdinand found a country:

• Socially: Divided even in classes, with the courts of Cádiz lacking validity.
• Demographically: The population decreased significantly due to the War of Independence.
• Economically: Ravaged by war, with destroyed infrastructure and a lack of manpower. Communications were destroyed, interrupting trade and communication with America.
• Politically: Divided ideologically between absolutist realists and liberals.

Ferdinand returned to Spain in March 1814. On his way to Madrid, he was intercepted by General Elio, an absolutist, near Valencia. The Manifest of the Persians was delivered, committing Ferdinand to restore the Old Regime and nullify the work of the Cortes of Cádiz. In May 1814, he staged a coup d'état and enforced the Old Regime in Madrid. His reign is divided into three stages:

The Absolutist Sexennium (1814-1820)

Ferdinand canceled all the work of the Cortes of Cádiz and imposed the Old Regime. This meant the return of the estates, economic privileges for nobles and clergy, and the reinstatement of old institutions.

Liberal protest actions and centralized military uprisings occurred throughout the peninsula but failed due to a lack of support. In 1820, Rafael del Riego's uprising gained popularity and was supported throughout the national territory.

The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)

After the uprising, the king swore to uphold the Constitution of 1812. Internationally, the Congress of Vienna, a meeting of the powers that had defeated Napoleon, agreed to assist in defending absolutism and restoring the Old Regime in various states.

The Liberal Triennium began with the king's oath to the Constitution of 1812. Liberals were divided into doceanistas (moderates) and veinteañistas (radicals). The moderates initially took power, implementing gradual reforms that led to absolutist rebellions.

The most important absolutist move was the Regency of Urgell. The veinteañistas sought to radicalize the situation by altering the social order through uprisings made by secret societies (e.g., the Daughters of Padilla). The moderates lost power, and the radicals took over, leading to a request for assistance from the Congress of Vienna.

The Congress of Verona convened and decided to help Ferdinand VII with the Ten Thousand Sons of Saint Louis under the command of the Duke of Angoulême, arriving in April 1823. They entered Spain, starting a civil war dominated by international forces. The veinteañistas asked the king to intercede with the Congress, but the king used this opportunity to restore absolutism in October 1823.