Evolution of Historical and Geographical Schools of Thought

SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT: (IN HISTORY)

• POSITIVISM (19th century): History is a science, and it has to be taught at universities. Manuscripts and written documents are crucial elements that prove events. Main approaches concern military history, political history, or history of law. History serves a nation's great events. Learning by memorization, repetition, and without context, focusing on political history topics. Teaching by repetition, comprehension, and exposition. Representation by timelines and axes of time. Historical time is linear, unique, and homogeneous.
• MARXISM: History of the poor people and the proletariat. Social and economic history are crucial for this movement. New documents and evidence emerged. New subjects, overcoming national history. New teaching approaches.
• ANNALES: Connected with other social sciences, it takes issues from them. Seeks total history (cultural, social, economic, political). Explanatory history, history as a problem. Long length history vs. short length history. Useful learning of history. Long length: civilizations, mentalities, and environment. Medium length: society, economy. Short length: political history.

SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT (IN GEOGRAPHY)

• Positivist: Humboldt and Ritter. To find general laws explaining global geography. Determinist. Humboldt focuses on the evolution of the natural environment, while Ritter supports the idea that natural conditions greatly influence societies and their development.
• Quantitative: 1950s, formulates general laws to describe order in geographical space. Focuses on mathematical techniques and methods.
• Regional: The natural environment influences but does not determine. Men can freely choose between options nature offers. Geography is a human science, not a natural science. Focus on geographical elements in a region.
• Of perception: The world according to Americans differs from the world according to others. People have their own ideas about their geographical environment. Ideas or perceptions change and determine behavior. Work methods: observation, mental map, survey. K. Lynch is a prominent geographer of this movement.
• Radical: Originated in the 1960s based on Marxism ideology. Concerned with social problems and inequalities. New topics: Regional inequality, wars, poverty, pollution, and the Third world.
• Humanist: Emerged around the 1970s, a step back to regional geography. Uses an eclectic methodology. Based on subjective perception of one's environment. Gives importance to symbolic and cultural elements of the natural environment.

THE HISTORICAL METHOD

We know that taking good ideas from those who worked before us is useful, positive, and smart. In every case, copying is forbidden in our educational system. The historical method can transform copying into a learning tool:

• You may and should use good ideas and research of others, but acknowledge their work using bibliographic references.
• Copying is not negative if done correctly. Use quality sources and quote them accurately.
• Respect norms and proprietary rights when using information, especially data from the internet.
• Science progress is based on sharing research results. Develop ethical criteria to avoid misuse: cheating, plagiarism, falsifying data.

Use of the historical method helps develop elements related to attitude and ethical behavior: generosity, coordinated work, implication in science development, professional honesty, acknowledgment, professional courtesy. Importance of creating a historical conscience.

HISTORICAL THINKING

Historical thinking is a set of critical literacy skills for evaluating and analyzing primary source documents to construct a meaningful account of the past. It requires critical thinking and the ability to extrapolate.

Its 6 concepts:

• Establish historical significance: The past is vast, so choices about what to remember depend on perspective and purpose. Even the 'insignificant' can reveal something important.
• Use primary source evidence: Primary sources like letters, documents, and diaries are treasures for historians. Reading for evidence differs from reading for information.
• Identify continuity and change: History is a mix of continuity and change. Look for change where common sense suggests none and for continuities where change is assumed.
• Analyze cause and consequence: Examine the actions, beliefs, and circumstances that led to historical consequences. Consider human agency.
• Historical perspectives: Understanding the foreignness of the past is a challenge. Take historical perspective to comprehend the differences between past and present.
• Ethical dimension of historical interpretations (Historical empathy): Consider the responsibilities historical actions impose today. Make ethical judgments about historical actions without imposing anachronistic standards.

NEW TEACHING APPROACHES

Kieran Egan: Critical of Piaget. Focuses on stories, metaphors, and aims. Emphasizes opposite pairs in storylines and narratives.

• FIND THE IMPORTANT IDEAS: Identify the most important topic and why it's interesting for students.
• FIND OPPOSITE PAIRS: Determine opposite pairs that include the most important topics.
• ORGANIZE THE CONTENT AS A STORY: Develop a storyline using spectacular opposite pairs.
• CONCLUSION: Solve problems caused by opposite pairs with mediation.
• EVALUATION: Ensure students understand important ideas and content.

Antonio Calvani: Focuses on understanding time and narrative structure for children.

• Setting: Introduce main characters and context.
• Initial event: Event that sets the story in motion.
• Attempt: Actions linking narrative with character's personality.
• Consequence: Event marking the story's outcome.
• Reactions: Internal response expressing character's feelings about the outcome.

Containers of time help students understand history's complexity through unique events, characters, and environments. Calvani builds history through storylines of 'lifetime environments' based on unique events and characters.