European History: Congress of Vienna to WWII

The Congress of Vienna

After Napoleon's defeat, thanks to the union of absolute monarchies and the implacable opposition of the United Kingdom to French hegemony, the winners met to rearrange the map of Europe, as amended by Napoleon, and to restore the old regime. The United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and France met at the Congress of Vienna. Their initial purpose was to impose popular sovereignty in Europe. They formed the Holy Alliance and the Quadruple Alliance. The new map of Europe was presented: Belgium and Holland were united, Italy was divided, France maintained its borders of 1792, and the Germanic Confederation was created, including the Prussian Rhineland.

Fernando VII

Three periods are identified during his reign:

1. The Absolutist Six-Year Period (1814-1820)

A group of deputies, absolutely devoted to the king, presented a paper defending absolutism and attacking the legislation of the Courts of Cadiz.

2. The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)

The poor state of finances and the persecution of liberals were the main causes of continued pronouncements that occurred in this era. In 1820, officer Rafael del Riego staged an uprising, achieving victory and bringing back liberalism. This period had difficulties such as the economic crisis, the division between moderates and progressives, and the independence of Spanish America.

3. Absolutism (1823-1833)

Fernando VII suppressed all reforms of the Liberal Triennium. Riego was hanged, and the king returned to govern. The succession problem arose when Fernando VII promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction, which repealed the Salic Law.

Isabella II

Two periods are identified:

1. Regency Period (1833-1843)

Regents ruled because Isabella II was still a minor. The first regent was her mother, Maria Cristina. During her mandate, political changes from absolutism to liberalism occurred. The First Carlist War developed, which concluded with the Liberal victory and the signing of the Vergara Agreement. A progressive minister signed a disentailment, in which land and other assets of the Church were expropriated and auctioned. The aim was to reduce public debt and ensure that the land was exploited more rationally.

2. Reign of Queen Isabella II

It is divided into three periods:

• The Moderate Decade (1844-1854): Dominated by General Narváez, leader of the Moderate Party, a constitution was enacted.
• The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856): Led by Espartero, this period saw further disentailment, which affected communal lands.
• Alternation in power between the Moderates and the Liberal Union: The more advanced progressives and less radical moderates joined.

Challenges included the increasing intervention of the army, the appearance of new political groups, the Carlist War, and the population's discontent with the electoral farce.

Reasons for World War I

• Territorial claims in different countries, such as Russia and Austria-Hungary.
• Colonial interests had already led to very localized conflicts.
• The formation of two blocks of alliances: the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente.

Nazi Totalitarianism

The effects of the economic crisis left Germany in a difficult economic and social situation. In 1933, the National Socialist leader Adolf Hitler won the elections, supported by the right-wing party. He founded the Third Reich. The Hitler regime was characterized by:

• Domestic Politics: Imposition of Nazi Party control.
• Foreign Policy: Territorial claims were raised.
• Economy: Pursuit of an autarkic policy.
• Society: Promotion of Nazi ideology.