Enlightenment Philosophy and the Transformation of Europe

Enlightenment Thinkers

Enlightenment thinkers believed reason was the only way to understand and explain the world. This was a direct criticism of medieval tradition and religious theocentrism. Voltaire defended the freedom of thought and tolerance as a basis for human interaction. These thinkers held an optimistic view of nature as a source of justice and goodness, believing in progress and that human reason and will could transform society.

Enlightened Despotism

European monarchs were influenced by the Enlightenment, and some attempted to introduce its ideas regarding progress. They promoted the rationalization of administration, education reforms, and the modernization of the economy (e.g., Frederick the Great of Prussia, Maria Theresa of Austria). The concept of enlightened despotism is summarized by the phrase: "All for the people, nothing by the people."

Sociopolitical and Economic Shifts

• Social Changes: They opposed a stratified society, arguing that no one should inherit prestige or privilege.
• Economic Changes: They opposed state regulations and defended free trade (economic liberalism).
• Political Changes: Montesquieu proposed the separation of powers, Rousseau expressed the need for a social contract, and Voltaire defended the necessity of a parliament.

A New Dynasty Rules Spain

Charles II, the last Habsburg king, died in 1700. The appointment of the French prince Philip of Bourbon as his heir resulted in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714). This was an internal conflict in Spain with an international dimension, caused by a struggle between two pretenders to the throne: Philip of Bourbon and Charles of Habsburg.

The Revolutions of the 17th Century

In the 17th century, the Stuart dynasty wanted to govern without parliament and proceeded to arrest and execute opponents, leading to conflict between the supporters of parliament and the monarchy.

• 1649: King Charles I was executed, and a republic was proclaimed under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell.
• 1689: The absolutist policy of the new monarch, James II, caused a second revolution.

Key Historical Terms

• Manorialism: A system where lords received rents and taxes paid by peasants.
• Bourgeoisie: A social class defined by specific social behaviors and political views.
• Triangular Trade: A commercial route established in the 16th century.
• Decreto de Nueva Planta: A number of decrees established by Philip V between 1707 and 1716.
• Stratified Society: A system of civic inequality where the clergy and nobility held exclusive rights.
• Third Estate: A political pamphlet written in 1789 during the French Revolution.