Descartes and the Foundations of Modern Thought

Historical Context of Descartes

The historical context of René Descartes spans the 15th to the 17th centuries, marking the consolidation of the modern world. This era saw the completion of significant transitions by the late 17th century.

Socio-Economic and Political Shifts

• 16th-Century Crisis: An imbalance that extended into the 17th century.
• Socio-Economic Situation: Development of the bourgeoisie, mercantile capitalism, maritime technical innovations, and general economic growth.
• Hardships: Crises caused by pestilence, crop failures, and famine.
• Political Landscape: The rise of the absolute monarchy from the 16th century, exemplified by Louis XIV in France and Philip IV in Spain.
• Political Theory: Thomas Hobbes defended absolutism, while John Locke contributed to the devaluation of absolute power.

Warfare and Colonial Expansion

• Volatility: A period of high instability where many states conducted European colonial expansion.
• The Thirty Years' War: A conflict involving Catholics and Protestants.
• England: Experienced a civil war followed by a parliamentary republic.
• Monarchy Restoration: Between 1660 and 1688, the monarchy was restored in England.
• A New Regime: A system controlled by a parliamentary monarchy was imposed.
• Late 17th-Century Conflicts: The War of the League of Augsburg (1688–1697) and wars involving Denmark, Poland, and Russia.

Cultural Context

• The Reformation: Represented a return to European art and religious reform.
• Counter-Reformation: Prevalent in Catholic countries, leading to the Baroque style.
• The Baroque: Characterized by motion, instability, and complexity.
• Literature: Focused on characters and situations where reality and dreams merge. Notable writers include Shakespeare, Lope de Vega, and Góngora.
• Art and Science: Painters like Velázquez defined the era, alongside significant advancements in science.

Philosophical Context

The Break with the Medieval Past

The Renaissance renewed the position of man in the world and changed the ways of viewing reality, placing man at the center of everything (anthropocentrism).

The Rise of Rationalism

• Isolation: Shifts from the 14th to the 16th centuries led to the separation of man from God and the world.
• The Cogito: In solitude, the realization "I think, therefore I am" emerges. This isolation leads to a reliance on reason (Rationalism).
• Methodology: The philosophy of Descartes is fundamentally methodical, rooted in a faith in reason.
• Empiricism: The subordination of reason to experience.
• Kant: Attempted to summarize both Rationalism and Empiricism into a single system.

Subjectivity and Modern Philosophy

• Idealism: With Descartes, subjectivity is imposed, leading to idealism and culminating in the work of Hegel.
• Modern Development: The evolution of modern philosophy throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, continuing until the French Revolution and its cultural and philosophical consequences.