The Decolonization of Asia and Africa: A Historical Overview

Decolonization in Asia and Africa

Asia's Decolonization

Following World War II, Asia experienced a wave of decolonization, leading to the emergence of numerous independent nations. This process varied across different regions:

Islamic Asia

After the Ottoman Empire's defeat in World War I, its Arab territories came under the League of Nations' mandate system. Great Britain administered Iraq, Jordan, and Palestine, while France controlled Syria and Lebanon. This period was marked by:

• Rivalry between France and the United Kingdom
• Artificial territorial divisions
• Antagonism between Jewish and Arab communities
• Conflicts over oil resources and control of the Suez Canal

Iraq gained formal independence in 1932. The establishment of Israel in 1948, following the British Mandate and fueled by the Zionist movement and the Holocaust's aftermath, led to ongoing conflicts in the region. Other Arab nations, including Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Oman, Kuwait, Yemen (North and South), Qatar, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates, achieved independence in the following decades.

Southern Asia

British India, encompassing present-day India, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives, was a cornerstone of the British Empire. The Indian independence movement, spearheaded by figures like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru of the Indian National Congress and Muhammad Ali Jinnah of the Muslim League, gained momentum after World War II. Gandhi's philosophy of non-violent resistance played a pivotal role. In 1947, British India was partitioned into India (Hindu majority) and Pakistan (Muslim majority), leading to mass migrations and violence. Tensions between religious groups persist to this day.

Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia, a region with diverse cultures and religions, saw the decline of colonial powers like the Netherlands, France, and the United Kingdom. Indonesia, under Sukarno, emerged as a leader in the Non-Aligned Movement. Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia) grappled with French influence and the rise of communism. Burma, Malaysia, and Brunei transitioned from British rule.

Africa's Decolonization

Africa's decolonization gained momentum after World War II, influenced by factors like the rise of nationalism, the weakening of colonial powers, and international pressure. The Conference of Bandung (1955) played a significant role in promoting African liberation movements.

North Africa

North Africa witnessed the decline of British and French colonialism. Egypt gained independence in 1953 under Gamal Abdel Nasser, whose pan-Arabist policies influenced the region. Sudan achieved independence in 1956, later experiencing a split into Sudan and South Sudan in 2011. Libya, a former Italian colony, saw Muammar Gaddafi seize power in 1969, leading to a turbulent period marked by his support for pan-Arabism and conflicts with the West. The Arab Spring uprisings in 2010 had a profound impact on the region, leading to regime changes in Tunisia and a civil war in Libya.

Morocco and Tunisia transitioned from French protectorates to independent nations. Algeria's path to independence was particularly violent, marked by a war with France and the rise of the National Liberation Front (FLN).

Sub-Saharan Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa, characterized by its vast size and ethnic diversity, experienced a wave of decolonization, primarily from British, French, Belgian, and Portuguese rule. Ghana, under Kwame Nkrumah, became the first sub-Saharan African nation to achieve independence in 1957. Many former British colonies gained independence in the 1960s, with some joining the Commonwealth. French colonies also achieved independence, often through negotiations with nationalist movements.

Belgian Congo, later Zaire and now the Democratic Republic of Congo, faced a turbulent post-independence period marked by civil war and the dictatorship of Mobutu Sese Seko. Spanish colonies, including Equatorial Guinea and Western Sahara, also gained independence, with the latter's status remaining contested.

The Non-Aligned Movement

The Non-Aligned Movement emerged during the Cold War as a group of countries seeking to remain independent of both the Western and Eastern blocs. Key figures like Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, and Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt played pivotal roles. The movement held conferences in Bandung (1955), Belgrade (1961), Cairo (1964), and Algiers (1973), advocating for peace, disarmament, and economic development.

The European Economic Community (EEC)

The European Economic Community (EEC) emerged from the ashes of World War II as a force for European integration. Its origins can be traced back to:

• Benelux (1948): A customs union between Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.
• European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) (1951): Established by the Treaty of Paris, it aimed to foster economic cooperation and prevent future conflicts by pooling coal and steel resources among France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.

The Treaty of Rome (1957)

The Treaty of Rome, signed in 1957, established the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). The EEC aimed to create a common market by eliminating trade barriers, allowing for the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital, and establishing common policies in areas like agriculture and transportation.

The EFTA and British Entry

The United Kingdom, initially hesitant to join the EEC, formed the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) with other European countries. However, Britain eventually joined the EEC in 1973 after Charles de Gaulle's resignation as French President.

Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)

The EMU, introduced in stages, aimed to create a single currency, the euro. This involved the free movement of capital, convergence of economic policies, and the establishment of the European Central Bank (ECB). The euro was introduced in 1999, with some member states adopting it later.

The European Project in the 21st Century

The European Union (EU), the successor to the EEC, has undergone significant expansion, with numerous countries joining in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. The Treaty of Nice (2003) paved the way for enlargement, and the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe (2004) aimed to further integrate the EU.

Spain and the European Union

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Spain’s petition to be admitted to the European Community in 1962 was rejected due to the antidemocratic character of the Franco regime. However, in 1970 Spain reached a commercial agreement that granted a reduction in import and export duties for its trade with EC countries. After Franco’s death, during Adolfo Suárez’s term of office, Spain applied to join the European Economic Community. After a period of negotiation in which Spain had to adapt its economy and laws to those of the European Community, the Treaty on the Accession of Spain to the European Economic Community was signed on 12th June 1985 together with Portugal, and on 1^st January 1986 became a member. EEC membership required a thorough economic, legislative and social restructuring of the country and especially some industrial sectors (shipping, steel, textile…) were affected. In social terms Spain had to confront the challenge of creating a welfare system, similar to other European countries.Since then, Spain has played an important role in the consolidation of European unity and adopted the euro as its currency in 2002. Its entry meant to became part of a huge market (free movement) and also thanks to the Cohesion Funds, set up to encourage the development of the less economically developed member countries. As a result, Spain’s economy began to resemble the economies of Europe’s more advanced countries.