David Hume and the Rise of Empiricism in 17th-Century England

Empiricism: From Ockham to Hume

Precedents of empiricism can be found in the works of William of Ockham and Francis Bacon. Ockham argued that knowledge stems from the experience of the particular and concrete, not the universal. We can only speak rationally about concrete things that we experience because only they are known. Bacon, on the other hand, based his philosophy on the inductive method, which starts with the thorough and methodical observation of particular facts. He considered it the only way to ensure awareness.

Hume represents the culmination of empiricism, a movement initiated by Locke. He adopted some of Locke's basic principles, such as the desire to refine the understanding of prejudice and superstition. Moreover, he also received influences from other empiricists like Hobbes and Berkeley, and some enlightened thinkers like Diderot, D'Alembert, Voltaire, and Rousseau. Hume is considered the British representative of the Enlightenment, which was also occurring in the rest of Europe.

The radical empiricism of Hume led him to skepticism and was severely criticized and rejected. However, it also had positive effects because it helped to foster a more critical and consistent approach regarding alleged human capacities and possibilities of knowledge. Kant, who took a more rationalist stance, even said that Hume managed to rouse him from his dogmatic slumber. Kant is the one who makes a synthesis between the two currents.

Hume's Works and the English Enlightenment

This fragment belongs to the first volume of his Treatise of Human Nature, written in 1739. This volume was renamed in 1748 Essays on the Human Intellect, and ten years later, he changed its name to Research on Human Intellect. Furthermore, the second volume was also written in 1739, and the third, which speaks on morality, in 1740. In 1751, it was named Research on Moral Principles. The subtitle of the Treatise requires a declaration of principles, as Hume says that it attempts to introduce the experimental method (the one used by Bacon) of reasoning on moral grounds. This is the empiricist project. Hume's other works are Political Speeches, Natural History of Religion, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, and History of England.

The Political Climate of 17th-Century England

In the 17th century, England experienced a very different situation from that lived on the European continent. Anti-absolutist and liberal tendencies arose in the islands, and Parliament was strengthened by the support of the bourgeoisie. During the reign of James I of England, parliamentary opposition began. This continued during the reign of his successor, Charles I, which aggravated the estrangement between Parliament and the monarchy. Parliament presented a Petition of Rights, to which the king responded with a show of force by abolishing it. The consequence was a civil war that ended in 1649 with the execution of King Charles and the proclamation of the Republic.

In 1660, the fall of the Republic following the death of Cromwell led to the restoration of the Stuart monarchy. However, the parliamentarians called William III of Orange as king. His arrival is known as the Glorious Revolution, which marked the passage from an absolute monarchy to a parliamentary and constitutional one.

The Rise of Empiricism

The philosophical response to this situation was the rise of empiricism, a current that stated that knowledge was subject to and limited by sensory data, that is, by experience.