Cuba's Path to Independence: From Colony to Republic

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Introduction

The flagpole Regency period saw Maria Cristina, Cuba transition from a Spanish colony to a burgeoning metropolis. The Cuban question has several precedents: first, the independence of the colonies was a difficult process between 1808 and 1824, leading to the independence of almost all Spanish colonies, isolating them from the metropolis. This independence had the following reasons:

  • Internal: The War of Independence and the policies of Charles III.
  • External: The politics of Britain, U.S. independence, and the "Monroe Doctrine."

Key players included Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin. Bolivar's phases were:

  • 1810-1816: Early independence movement, taking advantage of Spain's weak position.
  • 1810-1820: Insurrections led by San Martin and Bolivar in new territories.
  • 1820-1824: Independence of most of the Ayacucho area.

This had several consequences, such as Cuba being elevated to a second-tier category. Great Britain benefited significantly, but conflicts arose, such as the Guerra Chiquita (1879) and the insurrection of 1883-85. These conflicts, combined with the Ten Years' War (1868-78) – an uprising for Cuban independence led by Cespedes, starting in Yara and ending with the Pact of Zanjon – and repression, led to further unrest.

The population demographics were approximately 58% white, 9% soldiers and militia, and 33% Black or mixed-race individuals. The main groups were Creoles and peninsular Spaniards. European interests were significant: trade with Cuba provided a balance for Spain. Autonomy was not achieved. Unlike the U.S., Cuba did not retain much of its income; the country exported over 90% of its sugar and tobacco production. The U.S. exerted diplomatic pressure and, by 1892, imposed tariffs on products while also financing Cuban independence with the intention of arbitrating conflicts between Cuba and Spain.

Development

The conflict between Spain and Cuba began in 1895 with the Grito de Baire. This was followed by the Montecristi Manifesto, written by Jose Marti and Maximo Gomez, leaders of the Cuban Revolutionary Party. After Marti's death, Maceo and Gomez assumed military leadership of the rebellion. This revolt was joined by the Philippines in 1896, headed by Emilio Aguinaldo, though the rebellion was quelled in 1897.

In February 1898, a significant incident occurred: the explosion of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana's harbor. Although likely an accident, the U.S. press blamed Spain and offered to buy the island. Spanish politicians, preferring an honorable defeat to a purchased peace, led to the U.S. declaring war on Spain in April 1898.

The press exerted significant influence, resulting in the "Yellow Press" phenomenon, which agitated public opinion and became a weapon in the conflict, particularly through tabloids. This occurred during a boom time for media, with figures like Rulitzer and Williams, and R. Hearst playing key roles. The war was decided at sea: the U.S. Navy defeated Spain in Cavite and later off Santiago de Cuba.

On December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris was signed, in which Spain recognized Cuba's independence and ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States. In 1899, Spain sold its remaining Pacific island territories – the Caroline Islands, the Marianas (excluding Guam), and Palau – to Germany.

Conclusions

The conflict had several consequences:

  1. A definitive change in Spain's international status.
  2. Loss of national identity and the development of nationalisms.
  3. Development of the labor movement and deterioration of public order.
  4. Rise of republicanism and a new militarism, with the army assuming the role of guaranteeing national unity and maintaining social order.
  5. A new mentality reflected in the secularization of society and the development of Spain's "Silver Age" of culture, expressed through "regenerationism" and the "Generation of '98."

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