Core Principles of Sociology and Social Science History

Social Sciences and Their Disciplines

• Economics: Managing resources
• Demography: Population studies
• Linguistics: The study of language
• Political Science: The study of power
• Cultural Anthropology: The study of communities
• Psychology: Human behavior
• History: Past human actions

The Sociological Method

Sociology is a science characterized by being objective, empirical (based on observation), theoretical (hypothesis verification), and cumulative.

The Modern Sociological Moment

Currently, sociology is less theoretical and focuses more on human values. It embraces anti-empiricism and objectivity, asserting that science is not merely pure theory.

Sociological Perspectives

• Critical: Seeking deeper answers.
• Unmasking: Penetrating social structures.
• Relativizing: Relating behaviors and ideas to their contexts.

Methods of Sociology

Empirical-Analytical Methods

• Quantitative: Surveys, sampling, and statistics.
• Qualitative: Interviews and life histories.

Hermeneutics

This method focuses on interpretation and understanding. It posits that there are no objective facts, only interpretations, where the researcher's bias plays an important role.

Critical Rationality (Frankfurt School)

Instrumental Rationality: Focused on capitalist purposes. Critical Rationality: Combines theoretical and practical reason to research universal truths and encourages self-reflection on science. Knowledge is seen as driven by specific interests.

History of Sociology

Auguste Comte

Obsessed with social disorder, Comte sought to reorganize society. He proposed the Law of Three Stages:

1. Theological: Phenomena explained by natural forces.
2. Metaphysical: Abstract entities and strengths.
3. Positive/Scientific: Knowing laws based on facts to predict phenomena.

He proposed the unification of sciences and was the first to use the term sociology for the study of society.

Karl Marx

Marx explained conflict and social changes resulting from the Industrial Revolution and capitalist society. He argued that economic factors are the primary causes of social structure. His study focused on capitalism, which he believed would eventually be replaced.

Émile Durkheim

Durkheim claimed sociology should study social facts that shape individual actions. He sought explanations for societal changes, focusing on the division of labor and individualism. He introduced the concept of Anomie: a lack of conduct standards, a vacuum of order, and a lack of laws and objectives leading to despair, often linked to broken religious transitions.

Max Weber

Weber responded to Marx by accepting the materialist conception of history but argued that economic factors are not the only motor of history. He highlighted the role of Christianity in the occurrence of capitalism. He also noted how science and bureaucracy affect social development.