Communication Theories and Public Relations Strategies

Functionalism and Communication Models

Functionalism: Theory developed by Talcott Parsons

Functionalism: Society is an interdependent and self-regulating social system tending towards equilibrium.

Shannon and Weaver's Mathematical Theory

Simple mathematical theory (Shannon and Weaver): Sender → Encoder → Channel (Noise) → Decoder → Receiver → Sender (Feedback).

Noise: Interference that can disrupt the transmission or reception of a message.

Types of Noise:

• Physical
• Physiological
• Psychological
• Semantic (distorted interpretation due to internal factors)

Advantages of the model: Explains barriers to communications (noise) and breaks down communications into understandable parts.

Disadvantages: Linear (no space for feedback in the original version) and does not account for power relationships.

Lasswell's Communication Model

Media functions in society: Results of actions are interpreted in terms of their contribution to the stability of the system; aspects of society serve a purpose and are indispensable for survival.

Describing the activity of communications (Lasswell Theory):

• Who: Communicator
• Says what: Message
• Which channel: Medium
• To whom: Receiver
• With what effect: Effect

Media Effects and Influence

Robert Merton and Dysfunction

Robert Merton Dysfunction: What is functional for society might not work with some individuals; consequences are negative for some individuals or groups.

Two-Step Flow Theory

Two-Step Flow Theory (Lazarsfeld and Elihu Katz): The flow of information and influence from mass media to the audience involves two steps: from media to certain individuals (opinion leaders) and from them to the public. In this model, interpersonal communications have a stronger effect than mass media.

Criticism of the theory: It is oversimplified, as the flow of information often has more than just two steps.

Agenda Setting, Priming, and Framing

Agenda Setting: Reality → Media Reality → Public Perception. Media does not tell us what to think, but rather what to think about.

• Priming: Refers to which topics are talked about the most.
• Framing: Refers to how topics are presented and described.

Forms of Public Communication

Forms of public communications: Journalism, advertising, and public relations.

1. Journalism: A professional activity to obtain, process, interpret, and disseminate information through any form. Information is presented in an easier format and follows ethics.
2. Advertising: The state of being public and spreading something. It is the dissemination of announcements to attract interest. Advertising is a paid form of non-personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods, and services. Characteristics: Part of the marketing mix, promotes purchase, and targets a buyer persona.
3. Public Relations (PR): A set of unpaid or persuasive techniques showing the relationship between the customer and the company. It consists of reputation management and mutually beneficial relationships. PR is an organized effort to communicate information to change attitude or behavior to benefit the client (Carlson).
4. Propaganda: Association to propagate doctrines, opinions, etc. It is a mechanism to degrade truths regardless of whether they are real (Alejandro Pizarroso).
5. Disinformation: Sets of techniques intended to communicate partial truths to discredit the actions or demands of groups. It is an organized action to defend something with the intention to manipulate the receiver.

Evolution of Public Relations Theory

PR Theory (Evolution of PR): Birth in the 20th century.

• Public Information Model: Ivy Lee (1904), the first PR advisor.
• First Agency: J. Walter Thompson.
• Committee for Public Information (1917): President Wilson created the committee to mobilize public opinion through mass media during the Great War (George Creel).
• Edward Bernays (Pioneer of PR): Creator of the PR advisor role and the first professor. He argued that a PR consultant's main contribution to the public and his client is his ability to understand and analyze the dark tendencies of the public mind before they have reached definite expressions.
• First Institutionalization of Professional Practice: PR consultancy created in 1920. WWII caused a boom as large companies emerged. By 1978, 80% of companies had formal PR.

The Theory of Excellence

Theory of Excellence: Emphasizes the importance of PR as a strategic function within organizations. Grunig launched Project Excellence in 1985, studying 327 organizations to see how they practice PR and what practices contribute to increased effectiveness.

Levels of the Theory of Excellence:

• A) Programmatic level: Why, when, and how communications plans are implemented.
• B) Department level: How the PR department works and fits with other departments.
• C) Organizational level: Understanding and respect for the audience; communications and feedback by the organization.
• D) Economic level: The tangible value that PR brings (e.g., a satisfied audience).

The theory suggests that PR contributes to organizational effectiveness by building long-lasting relationships with strategic groups. PR is a management function and proposes strategies for stakeholders. The rigidity of the Theory of Excellence has led to criticism for being too normative or unrealistic.

Symmetrical and Relationship Models

The Symmetrical Idea or Mixed Motivation Model (Grunig and Hunt): This model assumes that organizations and audiences have separate or conflicting interests; PR should serve both and create a win-win situation.

Theory of Relationships: Focuses on the effective management of relationships between the organization and the public (Ledingham's Theory of Relations). It focuses organizational communications on the management of relationships so the organization can achieve corporate goals and objectives. PR searches for mutual benefit and the common good for survival.

Ledingham's conclusions: Public-organization relations are transactional, dynamic, and goal-oriented.

Identity, Reputation, and the Public

Metaphorical Image and Identity Models

Metaphorical Image: Dutton and Dukerich claim that the opinions and reactions of others affect identity through mirroring, suggesting that mirroring operates to motivate members to get involved in issues that have the power to reduce public opinion.

Three Circles of Identity and Reputation Model (Hatch and Schultz Model): Explores the relationship between organizational identity, culture, and stakeholders.

• Identity expresses cultural understandings and mirrors the images of others.
• Left side: Represents the internal culture of the organization.
• Right side: Various interest groups with their own values and culture.
• "We": Emphasizes belonging and internal collective identity.
• "Us": The perspective of the interacting organization.
• Member-Identity Arrow: Actions, behavior, and communications of members contribute to the formation of organizational identity.
• Identity-Stakeholder Arrow: How organizational identity is projected to stakeholders through products or services.
• Stakeholder-Identity Arrow (Listen): The organization pays attention to perceptions and feedback, which influence identity.

Defining the Public

Public (Dewey and Blumer): A group of people who face a similar problem, recognize it, and organize to do something about it. From this, Grunig determined the Situational Theory of Publics, which explains how publics respond to an issue based on awareness, perception of ability to act, and personal involvement.

Public Situational Theory Variables: Problem recognition, constraint recognition, and level of involvement.

Types of Publics:

• Non-Public: Does not face the problem, has no recognition, and takes no action.
• Latent: Faces the problem but does not recognize it exists and does not take action.
• Informed: Faces the problem and recognizes it, but does nothing.
• Active: Recognizes the problem and organizes to act against it.

PR as Communications Management

Mission, Vision, and Corporate Values:

• Values: Principles that guide organizational actions.
• Brands with Purpose: Generate deeper emotional connections with consumers, build a stronger authentic reputation, attract and retain motivated talent, and differentiate the brand.
• Brand Purpose Statements: Usually clear, simple, inspirational, authentic, and timeless.

PR Techniques:

• Event Management: Organizing events to create visibility and engagement.
• Social Media Engagement: Using platforms to communicate.
• Content Marketing: Creating valuable content to build credibility.
• CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility): Engaging in environmental or social initiatives to boost reputation.
• Influencer Relations: Partnering to expand reach and credibility.
• Lobbying: Engaging with government officials to influence policies.
• Sponsorship and Partnership: Collaborative efforts for mutual promotion.