Cognitive Psychology: Mental Models and Problem Solving

Simple Representations

When people interact with objects for the first time, they intuitively understand their function. Examples include chairs, closets, and tables. These interactions rely on two types of representations:

• Propositional representations
• Visual representations

Effective interfaces help users develop appropriate levels of confidence, while consistent feedback helps build a robust mental model.

Problem Solving Strategies

Problem solving involves navigating from a current state to a desired goal through specific actions, such as the Tower of Hanoi puzzle.

Means-Ends Analysis (MEA)

Mental models are used to perform Means-Ends Analysis (MEA). MEA examines the current state of a device and identifies differences between it and the target solution. For example, if a disk is full, the user must identify steps to create more storage space.

Backtracking

Solvers often struggle to move away from a goal, as seen in the goat, cabbage, and wolf puzzle. Interfaces can help users avoid unnecessary backtracking by clearly indicating the correct direction.

Cognitive Barriers in Problem Solving

Functional Fixedness

Functional fixedness occurs when a person becomes fixated on a single, traditional use for an object, as illustrated by the candle problem.

Einstellung

Einstellung is similar to functional fixedness but refers to a situation where a person becomes fixated on a specific strategy to solve a problem, such as the water jug puzzle. Both phenomena arise when individuals rely too heavily on previous successes rather than utilizing their full knowledge base.

Insight and Impasse

Insight Problems

Insight problems require novel behavior or understanding to solve, such as connecting dots with four-line segments without lifting the pencil.

Impasse and Fixation

• Impasse: A point where an individual runs out of strategies or ideas to solve a problem.
• Fixation: An individual repeatedly applies the same ineffective solution despite evidence that it is not working.

Incubation and the 'Aha' Experience

Incubation is a pause between attempts that can aid in finding a solution by clearing faulty ideas or allowing environmental cues to suggest new paths (Kaplan, 1989). This often leads to the 'Aha' experience, where the solution appears suddenly, like a Eureka moment.

Post-Completion Error

A post-completion error occurs when the primary goal of a task is finished, but secondary subtasks remain incomplete. A classic example is an old-fashioned ATM, where users often forget to retrieve their card after receiving their money.