Classical Realism and the English School: Core IR Theories

Classical Realism: Foundations of IR Theory

Classical Realism is the oldest research programme in International Relations (IR). It is rooted in a positivist ontology, viewing IR as an objective, measurable field that utilizes a scientific approach to social science. This framework encompasses Classical, Neo- or Structural, Offensive, Defensive, and Neoclassical Realism.

Core Theoretical Assumptions

• Scientific Verifiability: IR is analytically and empirically measurable through human observation.
• Founding Figures: Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes, and Clausewitz.
• Power Politics: Politics is defined as a struggle for power for one-party advantage.
• The Realist Motto: "The aim justifies the means" (Machiavelli).
• Anarchy: The international system lacks a world government or hierarchy above sovereign states.
• Rationality: States act according to self-interest via cost-benefit analysis.
• The Black Box Concept: States are treated as unitary actors with identical a-priori interests: survival, security, and power.

State Policy and Capabilities

Realists focus on material capabilities and their distribution. To pursue their core interests, states utilize three primary policy options:

• Hegemony
• Balancing
• Bandwagoning

States prioritize relative rather than collective gains, focusing on military and economic resources. Realism discards domestic politics, viewing states as "black boxes" and international institutions merely as tools of statecraft.

The English School: Bridging Values and Order

Emerging from debates between internationalism and isolationism, the English School is not exclusively a British enterprise. It rejects an exclusively positivist approach, expressing skepticism toward Neo-realist and Neo-liberal assumptions.

Key Theoretical Perspectives

• Liberal Realism: A preference for traditional approaches that acknowledge subjective factors and values.
• Explanatory Theory: The belief that there is no escape from values or history.
• Societal Order: Stability is derived from the commonalities shared among actors.

Three-Level Dynamics in IR

1. International System: The structural environment.
2. International Society: The focus on societal interaction rather than just the system.
3. World Society: The community of humans rather than just states.

The English School maintains an internal tension between pluralists (who emphasize order and international society) and solidarists (who emphasize humanitarian values and world society).