Civil Society, Political Society, and the Pursuit of Happiness

Civil Society vs. Political Society

Locke's Distinction and the Liberal State

Locke was the first philosopher to distinguish between civil society and political society, emphasizing the need for a liberal state to protect individual liberties. Hegel's liberal thought assigns the state the task of applying universal goodwill to particular situations. In present-day democratic societies, civil society is considered the most suitable environment for individuals to exercise their liberties.

Naturalistic Theory

Naturalistic theories posit that society precedes the individual, arguing that society is a necessary condition for human life. Several prominent philosophers have supported this concept:

1. Plato argued that humans are not self-sufficient and cannot independently acquire the material goods necessary for survival. Aristotle stated that the individual and the family are subordinate to the state, asserting that a person who does not live in society is not truly human.
2. In the Middle Ages, Thomas Aquinas, a proponent of scholastic philosophy, echoed Aristotle's thesis.
3. During the modern era, thinkers like Hume criticized the rationalist view that placed the origin of society in a social contract. They argued that humans naturally form groups, driven by instinct, self-interest, and utility.
4. Contemporary philosophers such as Marx defined the natural character of human sociability, emphasizing that humans depend on social relationships, which are determined by their position within society's structure.

Contractarian Theory

Contractarianism posits that society is the result of a free agreement among individuals.

Hobbes

1. In Hobbes' view, the natural state of humankind is a "war of all against all," driven by the pursuit of individual desires.
2. The social contract requires all individuals to become subjects, relinquishing their rights to a sovereign power.
3. This irrevocable transfer of rights leads to political absolutism.

Locke

1. Locke believed that humans are naturally free and equal, subject to natural law, which protects life, liberty, and property as inalienable rights.
2. The social contract is entered into voluntarily by individuals who relinquish the power to legislate and punish violations of natural rights.
3. The transfer of rights is partial, preserving natural law and the right to private property.

Rousseau

1. Rousseau argued that in their natural state, humans are free and primarily concerned with self-preservation.
2. Through a social contract, individuals voluntarily surrender their rights to the "general will."
3. This "general will" represents the collective will of the community, with each individual contributing equally.

Happiness and Justice

Happiness is the attainment of a desired good accompanied by a sense of satisfaction. It implies a degree of permanence and is linked to the achievement of the moral ideal of justice. Kant highlighted the connection between justice and happiness, arguing that actions that harm others or the planet are incompatible with both.

Civil Society and Freedom

Defining Civil Society

Social life comprises two spheres: the private sphere of individual experience and the public sphere of social interaction. Politics serves to harmonize these two spheres and organize coexistence within civil society. Aristotle defined civil society as a collection of free and equal citizens in the public domain, without distinguishing between social and political aspects.

Freedom and Morality

Freedom is a prerequisite for moral action; without freedom, there can be no morality or responsibility. Freedom is generally understood as the capacity of the human will to make independent decisions. There are two main perspectives on freedom:

1. Physical or external freedom: Freedom from external constraints or impediments to action.
2. Internal or moral freedom: Freedom of the will, the ability to choose among various possibilities without predetermination. This is equivalent to free will or liberty of indifference, and it also encompasses freedom of thought and reason as essential for the responsible exercise of liberty.

While we are not condemned to freedom, we are conditioned by our experiences throughout life.

Ethical Theories

Material Ethics

Eudaemonism (Aristotle)

The ultimate goal of human life is happiness, which is achieved by fulfilling our natural tendency towards reason. Happiness also requires a degree of physical and social well-being to meet our other needs.

Hedonism (Epicurus)

Good and happiness consist in pursuing pleasure and avoiding pain. Since pleasures and pains can occur together or in sequence, a rational calculation is necessary to determine which are the most intense and enduring.

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism equates good with utility. Moral value lies in the practical effects of actions, aiming to achieve the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.

Formal Ethics

Kantian Formalism

Kant rejected earlier ethical theories for their inability to establish universality and necessity, which are essential characteristics of morality. A universal and necessary moral principle cannot be material; it must be formal, devoid of empirical content. The goodness of an action lies in the way it is performed, not its consequences.

Existentialist Formalism (Sartre)

Sartre believed that human existence is not influenced by any pre-existing values or purposes. The goodness of an action lies in its radical and absolutely free nature.

Analytical Philosophy

Analytical philosophy shifts the focus of philosophical analysis from thought to the logical structures of language. It analyzes moral concepts to uncover their meaning through our use of language. In this sense, it is a formal ethical approach. Ethical terms help us determine whether an action is right, but language cannot dictate what things and human actions should be.

Ethics of Citizenship

The ethics of citizenship is a recent attempt to construct a universally applicable ethic that respects pluralism and addresses global risks. It is characterized by:

1. Alignment with democratic principles.
2. Openness to biospheric ethical problems and awareness of the interdependence of contemporary moral issues.
3. Utilization of the historical record of human rights and a focus on extending these rights to the biosphere and future generations.