Catholic Monarchs: State Organization and Rule

6.4. The Catholic Monarchs and the Organization of the State: Institutions of Government. The Catholic Monarchs' political program was straightforward, aiming to strengthen royal authority, modernize the state, maintain the existing social hierarchy, and ensure religious unity. To achieve these goals, they improved existing institutions and made them function efficiently. The nobility retained its economic and social power, recognized by the Kings in the Laws of Toro (1505), but lost any previously granted privileges (income, taxes, land, annuities, etc.). The crown also recovered control of the military orders.

Government functions were organized around the Royal Council of Castile (or Council of Castile), which, reformed in 1480, became the primary governing body and supreme court. Other councils (Aragon, Military Orders, Inquisition, Granada) were added to professionalize the government and place it firmly under the kings' control. This professionalization included the rise of royal secretaries, trained professionals (university scholars), who enjoyed the kings' trust. Justice was organized across three levels.

• At the local level, magistrates were responsible for administering justice (alongside administrative and military functions). They also oversaw local politics, collected taxes, and monitored the performance of mayors and aldermen.
• Appeals against magistrates' decisions and other local courts went to the chanceries (or audiencias). These were located in Valladolid and Ciudad Real (later moved to Granada), with jurisdiction divided by the Tagus River.
• The Royal Council served as the highest court.

The Cortes of Madrigal (1476), at the kings' behest, revived the Holy Brotherhood, which lasted until 1498. This medieval institution, originally formed in towns and cities, became a rural police force tasked with combating crime and maintaining order, suppressing banditry and feuds between local lords. It also provided the crown with revenue, enhancing the kings' political autonomy from the Cortes.

Two fundamental institutions for domestic and foreign policy were the Treasury and the military. The Catholic Monarchs increased their income through efficient tax collection (sales tax, customs duties, tributes, church rents, and extraordinary income from the Cortes and loans). They also organized the Treasury with accountants and auditors, and implemented effective recovery systems. These funds enabled the creation of a standing army, a key instrument of modern warfare and the foundation for future imperial expansion.

The Cortes were subjected to the royal will through the elimination of political opponents, monitoring of sessions, and infrequent summons. Their role was reduced to swearing allegiance to the heir and voting on royal requests for services. The kings only summoned them when they needed revenue from other sources. In the Crown of Aragon, institutional changes were minimal.

The Remensa conflict was resolved with the Sentence of Guadalupe (1486), which eliminated abuses, allowed farmers to leave their land, and established perpetual land use in exchange for a fee (long-term lease). It also established elections for the Consell de Cent in Barcelona. However, the power of the Aragonese courts remained largely intact, although Ferdinand managed them to serve the interests of the Catholic Monarchs of Castile.

The Catholic Monarchs also created a national church under their control, using papal grants to establish regional councils and the Supreme Council of the Inquisition. This was implemented across all kingdoms, not without opposition (in Aragon, opponents of Inquisitor Pedro Arbués were killed in 1495). The Inquisition targeted heretical views (false converts, enlightened thinkers, witchcraft, etc.). Furthermore, religious unity in Castile was achieved through the expulsion of Jews in 1492 and the Mudejar in 1502.