British Restoration and 18th Century: Politics and Society

Restoration and 18th Century

Introduction

Following the period of the Republic, governed by Oliver Cromwell and later by Richard Cromwell, the Restoration era commenced in 1660. This marked the year when England ceased to be a republic and saw the reinstatement of Charles II, the exiled Stuart King, to the English throne. The 1707 Act of Union formally united England, Scotland, and Wales into Great Britain. This epoch was characterized by a surge in commercial growth and an expansion of global commerce for Britain. Literacy rates improved, extending to the middle classes and even reaching some segments of the underprivileged. New societal concepts emerged, emphasizing civility—a standard of conduct to which anyone could strive—along with a developing discourse on freedom, individual rights, empathy, and compassion.

Religion and Politics

The re-establishment of the monarchy was accompanied by several significant events:

• English theaters, shuttered during Cromwell's Puritan administration, were reopened.
• The Church of England was re-established as the country's official church.

Church and State: A Close Relationship

The Test Act of 1673 mandated that all individuals in civil and military positions receive the sacrament according to the Anglican Church's rites and renounce the doctrine of transubstantiation. Those who dissented, such as Protestant nonconformists and Roman Catholics, faced restrictions, including exclusion from university education and public service positions.

Although King Charles II outwardly adhered to Anglicanism, his Catholic inclinations created tension with the vehemently anti-Catholic Parliament. Charles II did not have a legitimate successor, and his Catholic brother, James, was the immediate heir to the throne.

Church and State: A Close Relationship

Parliament endeavored to compel Charles II to exclude his brother from the line of succession. Charles II ultimately resolved this "Exclusion Crisis" by dissolving Parliament. This crisis, in a way, gave rise to the formation of contemporary political factions: the Tories, who backed the King, and the Whigs, who were in opposition to him. Upon his coronation, King James II promptly overturned the Test Act.

In 1688, the birth of James's son caused widespread concern throughout the nation, raising the possibility of a renewed line of Catholic rulers. Consequently, clandestine discussions were initiated to install a new Protestant monarch from Europe, aiming to replace James.

William of Orange: The Glorious Revolution

In 1688, William of Orange, along with his spouse Mary (James's daughter), arrived in England accompanied by a modest military force. They successfully took control in an episode that became celebrated as the Glorious or Bloodless Revolution.

James II retreated into exile in France. For more than half a century, his loyalists, known as Jacobites (derived from "Jacobus," the Latin form of James), initiated several unsuccessful campaigns to reinstate the Stuart dynasty of Catholic monarchs to the British throne.

William of Orange: The Glorious Revolution

Queen Anne, another of James's daughters, ascended to the throne next, reigning from 1702 to 1714. Her tenure was marked by prosperity for Britain, with the War of the Spanish Succession (1702-1713) generating new commercial prospects. The Act of Union in 1707 consolidated England, Scotland, and Wales into Great Britain. Since Anne, like Mary, did not produce an heir, the succession was designated to the royal House of Hanover, leading to a succession of monarchs named George (I-IV). This period is also referred to as the Georgian era.

William of Orange: The Glorious Revolution

Presently, the term "Whig" is commonly linked with liberal ideologies, while "Tory" is associated with conservative principles. However, the foundational beliefs of these two factions were dynamic and evolved in response to the political climate throughout the era.

Robert Walpole, a Whig statesman who held office during the reigns of both King George I and George II, maintained a parliamentary position from 1701 to 1742. Walpole was acknowledged as the inaugural "Prime Minister."

During King George III's extensive reign, Britain evolved into a significant colonial power. Both domestically and internationally, his subjects embraced a novel discourse on freedom and radical change, observing and engaging with the revolutionary movements in America (1776) and France (1789).