Behaviorism and Constructivism in Educational History

Behaviorism

• Historical relevance: It is one of the most influential branches of psychology for the development of education in the 20th century. Today, it is often associated with "traditional" education, exercises/drills, and evaluation.
• Definition of behavior: In psychology, behavior is what we do; it refers to our actions, meaning the external aspect. Behaviorism is concerned with encouraging or making people perform certain actions.
• Theory of Nurture: We learn to act in certain ways from experience: if we get a good outcome, we will do it again; if we get a bad outcome, we won't repeat it.

2.1. Edward Thorndike

• Approach: Aimed to make psychology a measurable and observable science. He studied animal intelligence to predict human behavior.
• Main Laws:
  • The Law of Effect: Actions with rewarding results are strengthened; negative effects teach us not to repeat the action.
  • The Law of Exercise: The more an action is practiced and repeated, the faster it is performed and the more strongly it is associated with the reward.
• Legacy: Laid the groundwork for classical and operant conditioning, aiming to automate reactions to specific stimuli.

2.2. J.B. Watson and Classical Conditioning

• Inspiration: Based on Ivan Pavlov (who successfully trained dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell by associating it with food).
• Theory: All learning is understood as an automatic reaction through stimulus, response, and association. It views the child as a programmable "blank slate" and the individual as a passive subject.
• The Little Albert Experiment: Demonstrated that fears and phobias are learned, not innate.

2.3. B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning

• Mechanism: Focuses on how rewards and punishments shape behavior so that the individual "chooses" to act.
• Types of Stimuli:
  • Positive reinforcement: Giving something good.
  • Negative reinforcement: Removing something bad.
  • Positive punishment: Giving something bad.
  • Negative punishment: Removing something good.
• Contributions: Developed schedules of reinforcement (rewards given at unpredictable times are more effective) and the teaching machine (fragmented learning at one's own pace with immediate feedback).
• Current Criticism: While his concept survives in online learning platforms, critics argue it reduces learning to rote memorization and minimizes the socio-emotional and teacher's role.

3. Constructivism

A broad learning theory postulating that knowledge is not innate; instead, students actively construct their own knowledge by interacting with the world.

Piaget (Cognitive Constructivism)

• Origin: Noticed that children of the same age made the same mistakes, concluding that they pass through fixed biological stages of cognitive development:
  1. Sensorimotor (0-2 years).
  2. Preoperational (2-7 years): Highlighted by egocentrism (the inability to view the world from another's perspective).
  3. Concrete operational (7-11 years): Conservation is developed (understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in physical appearance).
  4. Formal operational (11+ years).
• Learning Process: Occurs individually through the evolution of mental schemas via disequilibrium, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibrium.

Lev Vygotsky (Sociocultural Approach)

• Theory: Learning is a social and cultural process, not an individual one. Language is the central tool for structuring thought.
• Mechanism: We learn on two levels: first on a social level (observing and interacting) and then on an individual level (imitating).
• Key Concepts:
  • Zone of Actual Development: What the child can already do independently.
  • Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The ideal learning space where the student performs tasks with the guidance of a more experienced person.

Jerome Bruner and Scaffolding

• Proposes the use of flexible support systems (scaffolds) that are gradually reduced as the student gains autonomy and progresses at their own pace.

4. History of Education in Spain

Core Themes

• The Changing Role of Women: In the 19th century, Concepción Arenal defended early feminist ideas, arguing that women's domestic skills were valuable for public life, paving the way for them to work in nursing and early childhood education.
• Church vs. State: A historical conflict over whether education should be secular or religious, public or private, with the State progressively taking over educational duties.

4.1. 19th Century and Early 20th Century

• Moyano Law (1857): Centralized the system, regulated the Church, and granted exclusive doctorate degrees to the Universidad Complutense. It coexisted with high rates of illiteracy and "learning poverty."
• 20th-Century Reforms: Recognition of the right to education, official salaries for teachers, and compulsory schooling raised to age 12 (1909).
• 1910 Milestones for Women: Women were allowed to enroll in university without permission (March 8) and gained access to any profession within the Ministry of Public Instruction (September 2).
• Key Initiatives:
  • Institución Libre de Enseñanza (ILE): Secular; introduced coeducation (mixed classes), active methodologies, field trips, and physical education.
  • La Escuela Moderna: An anarchist project led by Ferrer Guardia in Barcelona, based on coeducation and innovative methodologies.
• Second Spanish Republic (1931-1936): Created a Unified School System (secular, universal, free, and coeducational). It built thousands of schools, improved teacher training, and eliminated compulsory religion. These reforms were halted in 1933 by a right-wing coalition (CEDA).

4.2. The Spanish Civil War and Francoist Schools (1936-1970)

• Civil War: Led to the evacuation of thousands of children abroad and the use of childhood in international propaganda.
• Opposing Models:
  • Francoist Faction: Compulsory Catholicism, traditional gender roles, authority, imperial patriotism, and the exclusive use of the Spanish language.
  • Republican Faction: Gender equality, secular education, cooperation, and plurilingualism.
• The Methodological Paradox: Historians discovered that both sides shared "New School" methodologies (Montessori, Dewey), as teachers on both sides had been trained in the same universities at the turn of the century.

4.3. Educational Reform Since 1970

• Initiated by the General Education Law (LGE) of 1970, which, alongside the transition to democracy, drove the expansion, improvement, and standardization of Spain's educational system.