Ancient Greece: The Rise of City-States and Social Change

The Emergence of Archaic Greece

In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages that followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization. Literacy had been lost and the Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. From about the 9th century BC, written records began to appear. Greece was divided into many small, self-governing communities, a pattern largely dictated by Greek geography: every island, valley, and plain is cut off from its neighbors by the sea or mountain ranges.

The Lelantine War

The Lelantine War (c. 710–c. 650 BC) is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period. It was fought between the important poleis (city-states) of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine Plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as a result of the long war, though Chalcis was the nominal victor.

Social and Political Transformation

A mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century, evidenced by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC. This introduced tension to many city-states. The aristocratic regimes that generally governed the poleis were threatened by the newfound wealth of merchants, who in turn desired political power. From 650 BC onwards, the aristocracies had to fight to avoid being overthrown and replaced by populist tyrants. This word derives from the non-pejorative Greek tyrannos, meaning 'illegitimate ruler', and was applicable to both good and bad leaders alike.

Sparta and the Helot System

A growing population and a shortage of land also created internal strife between the poor and the rich in many city-states. In Sparta, the Messenian Wars resulted in the conquest of Messenia and the enserfment of the Messenians, beginning in the latter half of the 8th century BC—an act without precedent in ancient Greece. This practice allowed a social revolution to occur:

• The subjugated population, known as Helots, farmed and labored for Sparta.
• Every Spartan male citizen became a soldier in a permanently militarized state.
• Even the elite were obliged to live and train as soldiers.

This commonality between rich and poor citizens served to defuse social conflict. These reforms, attributed to the shadowy Lycurgus of Sparta, were likely complete by 650 BC.

Athenian Reforms

Athens suffered a land and agrarian crisis in the late 7th century, resulting in civil strife. The archon (chief magistrate) Draco made severe reforms to the law code in 621 BC (hence "Draconian"), but these failed to quell the conflict. Eventually, the moderate reforms of Solon (594 BC), which improved the lot of the poor while firmly entrenching the aristocracy in power, gave Athens some stability.