Age of Exploration: Voyages, Conquests, and Empires

1. Great Sea Voyages

1.1. Objectives of the Voyages

In the Middle Ages, trade with Asia (silk, spices) followed the Silk Route to Constantinople and then across Central Asia. In 1453, the Turks conquered Constantinople, disrupting traditional trade routes. This necessitated finding new sea routes to access luxury goods.

1.2. Portuguese Expeditions

Portuguese sailors pioneered southern Atlantic routes:

• The African Path: Reached Madeira and Azores Islands, then the Gulf of Guinea, establishing colonies. Bartolomeu Dias reached the Cape of Good Hope.
• The Indian Route: Vasco da Gama reached India, opening the way to the Moluccas or Spice Islands.

Navigation Process:

Definitions:

• Astrolabe: Used to determine time and latitude from star positions.
• Portolan: Charts detailing shipping costs and routes.
• Caravel: Tall, strong ship for Atlantic navigation.

2. Castile and a New Continent

2.1. Columbus's Project

Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor, believed he could reach Asia by sailing west across the Atlantic. He underestimated Earth's circumference and was unaware of the Americas. The Catholic Monarchs financed his expedition, signing a contract in Santa Fe. Columbus would receive titles of "Admiral of the Ocean Sea" and "Viceroy" of discovered lands, plus one-tenth of all obtained property.

2.2. Columbus's Four Voyages

First Voyage (1492)

Columbus sailed from Palos on August 3, 1492, with the Santa Maria and two caravels, Pinta and Niña, and 105 sailors. On October 12, 1492, they landed on Guanahani (San Salvador) in the Bahamas. They explored Cuba and Hispaniola, returning to Spain in early 1493.

Second Voyage (1493)

Consisted of 15 ships and 1,500 men who settled Hispaniola.

Third Voyage (1498)

Columbus reached Trinidad and the Orinoco River mouth.

Fourth Voyage (1502)

Columbus explored the coasts of Central America.

2.3. Division Between Spain and Portugal

The Pope granted Spain sovereignty over lands discovered by Columbus. To avoid conflict with Portugal, the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) was signed. An imaginary line 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands divided the lands: west for Castile, east for Portugal.

Basic Concepts:

• Vasco Núñez de Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean, crossing the Isthmus of Panama.
• Magellan and Elcano completed the first circumnavigation of the Earth.

3. Pre-Columbian Peoples

3.1. Pre-Columbian Civilizations

The Maya

Flourished in southern Yucatán (Central America) between the 5th and 15th centuries. They were farmers, primarily cultivating maize, organized into independent city-states. They developed advanced astronomy, mathematics, and a hieroglyphic writing system. They built temples and palaces in the Yucatán Peninsula. By the Spanish arrival, this civilization had declined.

The Aztecs

A warrior people with a vast empire centered in Tenochtitlán, extending through central and southern Mexico. Political and religious power was concentrated in the emperor. They built large stepped pyramidal temples.

The Incas

Created an empire centered in Cuzco, extending from present-day Ecuador to Chile, with a population over 12 million. They were farmers ruled by an emperor, considered a god, called the Inca. They built Machu Picchu in the Andes.

4. Conquest and Organization of the American Empire

4.1. Great Expeditions

Conquest of Mexico

Hernán Cortés led an expedition from Cuba in 1518, landing in Mexico and founding Veracruz. He conquered the Aztecs, taking Emperor Moctezuma hostage. The Aztecs revolted but were defeated at the Battle of Otumba. Aztec territories were incorporated into the Spanish Empire.

Conquest of Peru

In 1531, Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro led the conquest of the Inca Empire (Peru, Ecuador, parts of Bolivia).

Other Conquests

Núñez Cabeza de Vaca explored Florida, Texas, and California. Almagro and Pedro de Valdivia conquered Chile. Orellana explored the Amazon, and Juan de Garay founded Buenos Aires.

4.2. Organization of Conquered Territories

Conquered territories were incorporated into the Crown of Castile, which financed their colonization. Castilian language, culture, religion, and laws were introduced. Two viceroyalties were established: New Spain (Mexico, Central America, Caribbean) and Peru (South America to Patagonia). Each had a viceroy. Provinces were ruled by governors. Municipalities with councils and Audiencias for legal matters were introduced. The Council of the Indies managed American affairs, advising the king and drafting laws.

5. Exploitation of Resources

5.1. Colonial Society

The majority were Native Americans. Creoles (colonists' descendants) numbered nearly half a million by the late 16th century. Mestizos were children of indigenous and Spanish people. In areas with labor shortages, enslaved Africans were transported.