20th Century History: From Interwar Period to Modern Day

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Item 11 of History: Interwar Europe

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After the Second World War, Europe and the world were divided into two blocs:

  • Eastern Bloc: With the Warsaw Pact
  • Western Bloc: With NATO
  • The EEC (European Economic Community) emerged but later evolved into the EU.

In 1929, a global crisis emerged, caused by intensified social struggles. This led to the establishment of totalitarian dictatorships, primarily Nazi-fascist in nature, through coups, civil wars (like in Spain), or reform policies such as the New Deal. Germany's annexation of Poland, followed by declarations of war by France and England, occurred in 1939. The USSR initially signed a non-aggression pact with Germany. The U.S. remained neutral at first, entering the war in 1941, the same year as the Soviet Union.

This war reshaped the geopolitical map. Eastern Europe, China, Vietnam, and Korea adopted the Soviet model, dividing the world into opposing blocs during the Cold War.

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Demographics

From the 17th to 20th centuries, there was a significant population increase, driven more by declining mortality rates than rising birth rates, with the exception of the African slave trade. Key factors included:

  • State control over administration, health, and hygiene.
  • Eradication of plague in the 18th century and smallpox through vaccination.
  • Improvements in economy, food, and transport.
  • European emigration to the Americas, Siberia, and Australia.
  • A notable exception was the population growth dip in 1929 due to the economic crisis.

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Economy

The 19th-century Industrial Revolution, propelled by electricity, oil, and chemical discoveries, spurred industrialization's spread. Industrial capitalism led to the rise of large corporations, funded by shares and controlled by banks. However, the economic situation faced setbacks due to war reparations imposed on Germany and debts owed by European countries. The Treaty of Locarno initiated a new era for the global economy. Overproduction and speculation, in both industry and agriculture, caused the New York Stock Exchange crash on Black Friday in 1929. The U.S. responded with Roosevelt's New Deal, slowing agricultural production to avoid surpluses, raising wages, reducing working hours, involving banks, and devaluing the dollar.

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Politics: The Era of Fascism

The 1920s saw the rise of Italian Fascism and German National Socialism, characterized by the absolute power of the state and suppression of opposition. They believed in the rule of elites and, in the case of Nazi Germany, racial superiority, leading to persecution of groups deemed inferior, including Jews. Their social base comprised the bourgeoisie, veterans, and support from big capital. Italy was the first country where fascism triumphed under Mussolini, followed by Germany under Hitler. Despite failing to secure a parliamentary majority, Hitler gained power with the support of the traditional right, eliminated opposition, and established the Third Reich and a Nazi dictatorship. Spain attempted to address agricultural and cultural issues, but right-wing opposition led to a military uprising on July 18, 1936, headed by Franco. The coup's failure resulted in the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). The world was divided: the Pope and fascist governments aided Franco with arms and troops, while democrats and the USSR supported the Republic. The war ended after three years.

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The Second World War

Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, triggering war with France and England. By 1942, Germany had annexed parts of Europe using blitzkrieg tactics—massive attacks by tanks and aviation. The situation changed with the invasion of the USSR and the U.S.'s entry into the war after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 8, 1941. The Normandy landings on June 6, 1944, marked a turning point. In 1945, Hitler's successor signed Germany's surrender, and Japan followed suit after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

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Cold War

The Cold War pitted the U.S. and its allies against the USSR and its allies. Social conflicts arose, including the Korean War (1950-1951) and the Berlin Crisis (1948-1949). Western nations formed NATO, while the Eastern Bloc created the Warsaw Pact. In China, strained relations between nationalists and communists led to civil war. The Vietnam War became a significant conflict, dividing the country into a communist North (capital: Hanoi) and a U.S.-backed South. Despite superior U.S. firepower, the Viet Cong's guerrilla warfare led to a communist victory in 1975, unifying Vietnam under Hanoi's rule.

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The World Today: Decolonization and the Third World

Between 1947 and 1962, European colonial empires largely dissolved, except for Portugal's. Nationalist movements, influenced by ideas of freedom and self-determination, emerged. Many newly independent nations became part of the Third World, characterized by underdevelopment, low per capita income, high mortality, limited education, and endemic diseases, often exacerbated by internal and external conflicts, leading to legal and illegal immigration to developed countries.

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Economic Growth of Developed Countries

Post-World War II, participating countries, except the U.S. and Canada, faced recession. The Marshall Plan boosted Europe's economy, aiding countries that resisted Soviet influence (Spain, under Franco's dictatorship, did not receive aid). This economic boom experienced its first oil crisis in 1973, coupled with a currency crisis, causing inflation, severe crises in Third World countries, and recession with high unemployment in industrialized nations.

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The World Today

After the Berlin Wall's fall, capitalist democracies were established, although not without conflicts and the emergence of new nations. System changes often worsened living conditions. The Arab-Israeli conflict remained a source of tension. Another phenomenon was the rise of fundamentalist Islamic states, like Afghanistan and Iran, seeking to implement Islamic law. Following the industrial and agricultural economies of the 19th and 20th centuries, the world entered an era of global financial economy, where policies are dictated by organizations like the IMF, the World Bank, and the OECD.

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