19th-Century Spanish History: Monarchy and Revolution

The War of Independence and the 1812 Constitution

Royal advisor Manuel Godoy allowed Napoleon to pass through Spain to reach Portugal. Consequently, Joseph (José I) Bonaparte was named King. On May 2, 1808, Madrid rebelled against French soldiers, marking the beginning of the Spanish War of Independence (1808–1814). Great Britain, Portugal, and Spain fought together until 1813. In 1812, the High Court of Cádiz drafted the Constitution of 1812 to eliminate absolutism.

The Reign of Ferdinand VII (1814–1833)

Ferdinand VII, son of Charles IV, ruled as an absolutist from 1814 to 1820, ignoring the Constitution of 1812. The Trienio Liberal (1820–1823) saw a military-led liberal government. During this era, the American colonies gained their independence. Before his death, Ferdinand VII revoked the Salic Law, allowing his daughter, Isabella II, to take the throne. This sparked conflict between the Isabelinos and the Carlistas (absolutists).

The Reign of Isabella II (1833–1868)

The reign began with the regencies of Maria Cristina and Espartero. Isabella became queen at age 13. Her reign was marked by two Carlist Wars (1833–1840 and 1846–1849). She was supported by two main groups: the Moderates (who favored more power for the King) and the Progressives (who favored more power for the High Court). In 1868, the La Gloriosa Revolution forced Isabella II to abdicate.

The Six-Year Democratic Period and the First Republic

Following the 1868 abdication, a six-year democratic period began, characterized by universal male suffrage. In 1870, Amadeo de Saboya became king, supported by General Prim, who was later assassinated. Amadeo I abdicated in 1873, leading to the First Republic. This federal republic faced significant challenges, including poverty, the Cantonal Revolution, the Cuban War, and the Third Carlist War. Due to this instability, the republic ended in 1874 with the arrival of Alfonso XII, son of Isabella II.

The Restoration (1875–1885)

The reign of Alfonso XII began in 1875. The prominent politician Cánovas del Castillo shaped the era's political ideas. The Constitution of 1876 established male suffrage (initially for the wealthy) and shared sovereignty between the King and the High Court. Power was controlled through a rotation between the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party.

The Regency of Maria Cristina (1885–1902)

After Alfonso XII died, Maria Cristina of Habsburg-Lorraine served as regent for the child Alfonso XIII. In 1890, universal suffrage was reinstated. This period concluded with the Crisis of '98, where Spain lost the last of the Spanish Empire.

Transformations in the 19th Century

The century saw significant social and economic changes. Although there was growth in agriculture, which employed two-thirds of the population, land expropriations led to worker rebellions. Spain faced an industrial delay due to a lack of materials, investment, and technological breakthroughs. However, commerce progressed with the expansion of railways and improved finances, including the creation of the National Bank (1856), the introduction of the Peseta, and the rise of private banks. Socially, the majority remained poor, leading to significant emigration. The modern social structure emerged: the Bourgeoisie, the Middle Class, and the Lower Class (comprising 80% of the population).

Art and Culture in the 19th Century

Art and architecture flourished during this time. Francisco de Goya (1746–1828) famously depicted the Spanish War of Independence. In architecture, the Congress of Deputies stands as a key landmark. Cultural movements reflected social and political changes:

• Romanticism: Authors like Larra, Zorrilla, and Bécquer sought to recover the essence of Spain.
• Realism: The novel became important, with writers like Pérez Galdós and Valera representing reality.
• Generation of '98: Figures such as Miguel de Unamuno and Valle-Inclán held pessimistic views and sought to improve the national system.

In education and heritage, significant advances were made, such as the Moyano Law of 1857, which mandated that girls over the age of six must study. The organization of newspapers also grew during this period.