The 19th Century: Industrialization, Marxism, and Modernity

Historical Context of the 19th Century

The nineteenth century was defined by the Industrial Revolution and the final triumph of bourgeois revolutions. This era was marked by the rise of capitalism, the bourgeois state, and, particularly in Italy and Germany, unifying nationalism. Following the defeat of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna attempted to restore the old regime, yet the momentum of the bourgeois revolutions persisted, signaling the birth of a new society.

Social and Political Transformation

The process of industrialization fostered the emergence of a new social class: the proletariat. This shift gave rise to influential political and philosophical movements, including Marxism, Bakunin's anarchism, and various forms of socialism, which eventually coalesced into the First International. During this time, Germany and Italy emerged as new European powers. Germany's subsequent expansionist interests and competition with France and Britain set the stage for the global conflicts of the twentieth century.

Cultural and Artistic Evolution

The century began with Romanticism, emphasizing freedom and subjectivity over classical rationalism. As social decline and poverty became more visible, art evolved to include these realities, as seen in the realistic novel and naturalism. Music also reached new heights through the works of Verdi and the concept of total art championed by Wagner, who significantly influenced Nietzsche. Furthermore, bourgeois historicist painting eventually gave way to Impressionism, while the theory of evolution sparked a cultural revolution that reshaped social and political discourse.

Philosophical Foundations

Philosophy in this period was dominated by the Idealism of Hegel, whose dialectic profoundly influenced Marx, alongside the work of Feuerbach. Contemporaneously, Schopenhauer introduced an irrationalist perspective on the "Will," which became a cornerstone for Nietzsche's thought. Additionally, Kierkegaard emerged as a forerunner to twentieth-century existentialism. Meanwhile, the positivist philosophy of Comte championed the scientific method, leading to the birth of sociology. Ultimately, nineteenth-century philosophy sought to engage with the real world, triggering a crisis of values through the philosophy of suspicion—a movement led by Nietzsche, Marx, and Freud that paved the way for modern thought.