19th Century European Unification and American Civil War

The 1815 Vienna Settlement

The 1815 Vienna Settlement established the Concert of Europe to:

• Achieve a balance of power.
• Prevent continental war.
• Maintain absolute monarchies.
• Uphold established territorial arrangements.

Revolutions of 1848

Liberalists, Nationalists, and Socialists fought for the rights of the lower classes during the 1848 revolutions.

Unification of Germany

Before 1806, the region consisted of 300 individual states from the Holy Roman Empire. Following the Napoleonic era, nationalism grew, though Germany remained under Austrian influence within the German Confederation.

• 1840: The Zollverein (customs union) was created between Prussia and other states, angering Austria.
• 1848-1849: Revolutions occurred; however, the Kaiser refused the crown due to complex Austro-Russian relations.
• 1862: Otto von Bismarck rose to power.
• 1864: Prussia attacked Denmark, gaining Schleswig and Holstein.
• 1866: The Austro-Prussian War (Battle of Sadowa) led to the Treaty of Prague.
• 1871: France was defeated, leading to the Treaty of Frankfurt. France became the Third Republic, and the German Empire (Reich) was formed with 25 states.

Unification of Italy

Italy was divided in 1816, leading to the formation of the Carbonari. Failed revolts occurred in 1830 and 1848.

• Leadership: Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy, King of Sardinia-Piedmont, was supported by Cavour.
• 1858: The Pact of Plombières with France helped Piedmont gain Lombardy.
• Garibaldi: Accepted a constitutional monarchy and united the southern states.
• 1861: The Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed, excluding the Papal States and Lombardo-Venetia.
• Completion: Following the Austro-Prussian War, the remaining territories were annexed, leading to the era of irredentism.

The American Civil War (1861–1865)

Tensions between the North and South escalated over slavery and economic differences (industrial North vs. agricultural South).

• Compromise of 1850: Addressed state borders and the status of slavery in new territories. California was admitted as a free state, and the Fugitive Slave Law was enacted.
• 1861: Abraham Lincoln (Republican) won the election, triggering the secession of the Confederacy.
• Conflict: War broke out at Fort Sumter, Charleston.
• Key Figures: Robert E. Lee (Confederacy) and Ulysses S. Grant (Union).
• Turning Points: Battles of Antietam (1862) and Gettysburg (1863). The Union eventually gained the upper hand, supported by Lincoln's 1863 address.