19th Century European Revolutions and Nationalism

The Second Revolutionary Wave (1830s)

The 1830s marked a shift away from clandestine societies and insurrection. This movement united diverse groups, including liberals, the bourgeoisie, intellectuals, and the working classes.

The French Revolution of 1830

Beginning in France in 1830, the movement overthrew the last Bourbon monarch, Charles X, and established a liberal monarchy under Louis Philippe I.

Expansion and Impact

This example extended to Italian and German states, Spain, Poland, and Belgium, which successfully won independence from the Netherlands. In the UK, a liberal movement achieved additional political and voting rights.

As a result, most absolutist monarchies in Western Europe were replaced with moderate liberal governments based on the French Constitution of 1791, characterized by:

• Censitary suffrage
• Limited freedoms
• Social dominance of the bourgeoisie

Springtime of the Peoples (1848)

Between February and July 1848, a wave of revolts began in France. Following an insurrection, Louis Philippe fled, and a Republic was declared.

Democratic Reforms and Conflict

A provisional government was formed, introducing democratic reforms such as:

• Universal male suffrage
• Abolition of the death penalty
• State intervention in the economy
• Guarantees of the right to work

Subsequent elections led to a moderate government that eliminated most of these reforms, triggering a working-class insurrection in June 1848. This marked a confrontation between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, where the bourgeoisie felt threatened by democratic ideas for the first time. The impact of this revolution was felt throughout Europe, particularly in the Italian states and the Austrian Empire.

Nationalism (1820–1848)

In Eastern Europe, boundaries were defined by political lines rather than community identity. The Austrian and Turkish empires controlled diverse populations, including Hungarians, Czechs, and Greeks.

Nationalist Movements

Germany and Italy were subdivided, leading to nationalist movements that sought to unite their respective states and communities. These movements caused revolutions within the Austrian and Turkish empires and eventually led to the unification of Italy and Germany.

The Outcome of Nationalist Revolts

Most of these nationalist movements initially failed as the Austrian Empire retook Prague, Vienna, Northern Italy, and Hungary. In France, the bourgeoisie placed Louis Napoleon Bonaparte in charge, declaring the Second Empire under moderate liberalism. However, Italy and Germany eventually achieved unification.

Unification of Italy

Italy was divided into many independent states, with regions like Lombardy and Veneto belonging to the Austrian Empire.

The Risorgimento

The Risorgimento nationalist movement began around 1830. Groups like "Young Italy" promoted insurrection to achieve a unified democratic republic. Following the failure of the 1848 revolution, the liberal constitutional monarchy in Piedmont (led by Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy and Cavour) was seen as the only path to unity through war. Ultimately, a pact was formed between Piedmont and the Italian General Garibaldi, known as the "George Washington of Italy."