19th-Century Europe: Empires, Reforms, and Power Shifts

1. Victorian England (1837-1901)

The reign of Victoria I marked the peak of the British Empire's territorial expansion and industrial development. While the parliamentary monarchy remained, progress towards a democratic system was evident. Despite relative economic decline compared to emerging powers like Germany and the United States, Britain remained a major financial center due to the strength of the pound and the Bank of England. This financial dominance fueled British interest in imperialist expansion, trade, and control of shipping routes.

Opening Policies and Reforms

From the mid-19th century, British politics revolved around the Conservative and Liberal parties. Benjamin Disraeli, a Conservative Prime Minister, enacted an electoral reform in 1867, expanding voting rights to a million citizens who owned property or paid rent. The Labor Party, founded in 1893, eventually supplanted the Liberals. Under Edward VII, the Conservatives embraced industrial innovation, ushering in the Edwardian era, a period of aristocratic wealth and economic power.

The Irish Question

Ireland, under British rule since the late Middle Ages, formally joined the United Kingdom in 1800. Irish resistance to British rule intensified after 1870 due to economic hardship and tenant evictions. The nationalist movement, led by Charles Stewart Parnell, gained momentum. The unresolved Irish question culminated in the 1916 Easter Rising, leading to the partition of Ireland into a Protestant north loyal to the UK and a predominantly Catholic south. The Catholic south achieved independence between 1920 and 1936.

2. France: Second Empire to Third Republic

The Second Empire (1852-1870)

Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon I, became president of the French Republic after the 1848 revolution. He declared the Second Empire in 1852, becoming Emperor Napoleon III. His Bonapartist rule, based on centralized power legitimized by popular support, weakened after 1860. Concessions included amnesty for political prisoners, educational reforms, and granting workers the right to strike and freedom of association. Concerned about Prussia's military growth, Napoleon III declared war in 1870, a conflict orchestrated by Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck.

Education Reforms

France's defeat at Sedan led to the proclamation of the Third Republic. The Paris Commune uprising in 1871 was brutally suppressed. The 1875 Constitution introduced universal male suffrage. Jules Ferry spearheaded secular state education reforms in 1882. The Dreyfus Affair, beginning in 1894, exposed anti-Semitism within French society. Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish army officer falsely accused of treason, was eventually exonerated in 1906.

3. The Second German Reich

The Second Reich was established in 1871 after Prussia's victory over France. Wilhelm I was proclaimed Emperor. The 1834 customs union, industrial growth, and railway development contributed to German unification. Monetary unification was achieved with the mark and the Imperial Bank. Germany's industrial expansion, fueled by the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine and financial concentration, made it a leading European power by the late 19th century. Political power was concentrated in the Emperor. Major political parties included the Liberals, Conservatives, and the Catholic Zentrum party.

Bismarck, Chancellor of the Reich (1871-1890)

Bismarck's policies aimed to secure the empire through a preventive strategy against internal and external threats, particularly a potential French revanche. He resisted colonial expansion in the 1880s. Following Wilhelm I's death in 1888, the new emperor, Wilhelm II, clashed with Bismarck.

The Germany of Wilhelm II (1890-1918)

Wilhelm II focused on imperial expansion and military buildup. Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow, appointed in 1900, supported this expansionist policy.

4. The Multinational Empires

Austria-Hungary

Austria-Hungary's diverse ethnic, cultural, and religious makeup posed a long-term challenge. The empire had two main centers: Austria, with its German culture, and Hungary. After Austria's defeat by Prussia in 1866, Franz Joseph I (1848-1916) established the Dual Monarchy, dividing the empire into two kingdoms with a shared emperor and joint ministries for war, foreign affairs, and finance. While this addressed Hungarian concerns, other nationalities remained dissatisfied. Nationalist tensions and Austria-Hungary's Balkan ambitions further destabilized the region.

The Russian Empire

Russia, an absolute monarchy, experienced relatively few changes during the 19th century. Ethnic and religious diversity led to centrifugal forces (minorities seeking autonomy) and centripetal forces (Pan-Slavism promoting assimilation). Tsars maintained a theocratic regime despite growing opposition.

Alexander II (1855-1881)

Following Russia's defeat in the Crimean War, Alexander II implemented reforms, including the abolition of serfdom (1858-1864), freeing 20 million people. He initiated industrialization and railway construction.

Alexander III (1881-1894)

Alexander III pursued a conservative policy, promoting state-led industrialization, exemplified by the Trans-Siberian Railway's construction (beginning in 1891). He also suppressed political opposition.

5. The Europe of Bismarck (1870-1890)

Bismarck's foreign policy aimed to isolate France, mediate between Russia and Austria-Hungary, and rearm Germany. His Realpolitik prioritized practical results over principles.

The Bismarckian System

Bismarck's system involved three alliances: the Three Emperors' League (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia), the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy), and the Dual Alliance (Germany and Austria-Hungary). These alliances aimed to maintain peace and isolate France but ultimately led to the formation of opposing blocs. The Triple Alliance and the Franco-Russian alliance foreshadowed the Triple Entente. Despite a period of peace, major powers engaged in an arms race.

The End of the Bismarckian System (1885-1893)

Renewed rivalry between Russia and Austria-Hungary over Bulgaria destabilized Bismarck's system. The growing Franco-Russian rapprochement marked the end of French isolation and the Bismarckian era.