Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for University

🧪 Topic 70: Lincosamides, Amphenicols, Polymyxins

Lincosamides (e.g., Clindamycin)

• MOA: Binds to the 50S ribosomal subunit → inhibits peptide translocation → blocks protein synthesis (bacteriostatic).

• Use: Anaerobic infections (e.g., Clostridium perfringens, Bacteroides), aspiration pneumonia, oral infections, invasive Streptococcus infections.

• Adverse effects: Diarrhea, pseudomembranous colitis (C. difficile), fever.

• Contraindication: Pregnancy (first trimester).

Amphenicols (e.g., Chloramphenicol)

• MOA: Inhibits peptidyltransferase on the 50S subunit → blocks protein synthesis (bacteriostatic).

• Use: Meningitis (H. influenzae, N. meningitidis, S. pneumoniae), Rickettsial infections.

• Adverse effects: Bone marrow suppression (aplastic anemia)

Anions: Definition and Characteristics

An anion is an ion (an atom or molecule) that possesses a negative electrical charge, meaning it has an excess of electrons. Anions are typically described with a negative oxidation state. They are broadly classified into two main types: monatomic and polyatomic.

Monatomic Anions

Monatomic anions are typically formed when nonmetals gain electrons to complete their valence shell.

Traditional Nomenclature (Monatomic)

These are named using the word ion followed by the name of the nonmetal, ending in the suffix -ide. (Note: Amide and Cyanide are often included here for simplicity, though technically polyatomic.)

• Cl^-: Chloride ion
• H^-: Hydride ion
• S^2-: Sulfide ion
• NH₂^-: Amide ion
• CN^-: Cyanide ion

Systematic Nomenclature

Bonding

Formal Charge: # Valence Electrons - (Nonbonding Electrons + 1/2 Bonding Electrons)

Gases

STP = Standard Temperature and Pressure (273 K or 0°C and 1 atm)

Ideal Gas Law

R = 0.0821 atm x L / (mol x K)

• Pressure (P): Always in atm
  • 760 mmHg = 1 atm
  • 760 Torr = 1 atm
  • 101,326 Pascal = 1 atm
• Temperature (T): Always in Kelvin
• # of Moles (n)
• Volume (V): Always in Liters

Boyle's Law

Occurs when T and n are constant.

Charles's Law

Occurs when P and n are constant.

Avogadro's Law

Occurs when P and T are constant.

Gay-Lussac's Law

Occurs when V and n are constant.

Combined Gas Law

n is constant.

Test

1. a) Valence Electrons for Na⁺ = 0
2. b) Which of the following does not have an octet around the central atom: BCl₃
3. d) A triple bond has a bond order of: 3
4. c) Least electronegative

Jurisdiction in the European Union

1. Relation with Other Legal Instruments

1.1 Other Specific EU Legal Instruments

Does not affect specific matters.

1.2 Brussels Convention

Superseded by the Brussels Regulation. References to the Convention should be to the Regulation.

1.3 International Conventions

Supersedes existing treaties, but treaties retain validity where not superseded. The Brussels Regulation (Regulation 44/2001) does not affect specific treaties. The Regulation shall not affect treaties prior to its entry into force.

2. Scope of Application

2.1 Time

March 2002

2.2 Geographical Scope

All EU members except Denmark (Denmark joined in 2005).

2.3 Material Scope

Civil and commercial matters (excluding revenue, customs, and administrative matters). Does... Continue reading "Jurisdiction in the European Union: A Comprehensive Summary" »

What is a Cheat Sheet? Definition and Terminology

A cheat sheet or crib sheet is a concise set of notes used for quick reference. The term may also be rendered as cheatsheet.

Academic Use and Exam Preparation

Cheat sheets are so named because they may be used by students without the instructor's knowledge to cheat on a test. However, in many educational settings, particularly high school or undergraduate studies, rote memorization is often less important than basic education or intense graduate studies. Therefore, students may be permitted to consult their own notes during the exam, which is not considered cheating.

The act of preparing a so-called cheat sheet is also an educational exercise. For this reason, students are typically only allowed... Continue reading "Cheat Sheets: Definition, Academic Use, and Technical Reference" »

The Victorian Age

Social and Historical Context

The Victorian age covers a wide period and was very productive, literarily speaking. We find the so-called professional writing: writers devoted their lives to writing. Literature became a profession. It constituted an outstanding moment for the development of non-fictional works. Poetry was cultivated, but the novel was the preferred genre.

Queen Victoria ruled Britain from 1837 to 1901. She brought important political and economic development to her country. It was the age of Colonialism, and a new philosophy was introduced. We are speaking about expansion and development. Queen Victoria was very young when she became queen. She was born in 1819 and died in 1901. She was in her teens when she became... Continue reading "Victorian Era: Society, Politics, and Poetry" »

Types of Innovation

Radical Innovation

Example: Fujifilm (a photography company) introduced a new line of skincare products.

Gradual Innovation

Example: Space rockets, showing evolution through the years.

Product Innovation

Allows the acquisition of new products or significant improvements to existing ones.

Example: Incorporation of flexible screens in mobile phones.

Process Innovation

Execution of new production processes to achieve more efficient or effective forms.

Example: Toyota's Just in Time organizational production method.

Competence Enhancing Innovation

Development that represents advancements within the same domain of knowledge.

Example: Intel processors (286, 386, 486).

Competence Destroying Innovation

A significant shift in the life cycle that... Continue reading "Mastering Innovation: Types, Strategy, and Organizational Structure" »

Probation Officer

Investigation and Supervision

Jeremy Bentham

The Panopticon (New Type of Prison Layout)

Anomie/Strain Theory

Excessive Materialism as a Limited Means to Success

Quakers

Hard labor. 13th Amendment -> Section 1 allows prison slavery.

Prisoner vs. prisoner violence: rate of 28 per 1000

50 state systems (92% of all facilities) + federal, private (8%)

Main goal of corrections: to protect the public

(United States) Prison population: 25%

60% on probation in the US system

Intensive supervision, $70 billion, official immunity, absconding --> reasons for probation revocation

School of Thought: Cause and Effect

Positivists, labeling theory --> Stigmatization

Michael Walker

Prison in California, stayed 165 days (6 months), contemporary pain... Continue reading "The American Prison System: History, Theories, and Challenges" »

Actin Cytoskeleton Dynamics and Regulation

The actin cytoskeleton provides thin, flexible mechanical support to cells. Actin monomers are added and removed at distinct ends of the filaments, influencing their dynamics and cellular functions.

• Actin-ATP Addition: ATP-bound actin is primarily added to the barbed (plus) end of the filament.
• Molecular Timer: Older filaments contain ADP-bound actin, making them unstable and prone to disassembly. This acts as a molecular timer for filament turnover.
• Cellular Movement: Actin dynamics are crucial for various cellular processes, including movement and phagocytosis.

Key Regulators of Actin Filaments

Several proteins precisely control actin filament assembly and disassembly:

• Nucleation Factors: Dictate the rate