Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Teaching & Education

Criticism is the activity displayed by the reader to identify the strengths, weaknesses, and inconsistencies of a text in order to accept, reject, or suggest modifications.

Criticism fosters progress, achievement, and advances knowledge of the truth.

Steps to Critique a Reading:

1. Synthesize information from different texts and/or experts on the subject.
2. Engage in critical discussion.
3. Accept, reject, or modify the reading's content.
4. Put the reading into practice with prior planning.
5. Enrich the reading by observing and recording the results of practice.

• Critical reading is a technique for discovering ideas and information within a written text.
• Critical thinking is a technique for evaluating information and ideas to decide what to accept and believe.

FORMAL E-MAIL:

• GREETINGS: (Dear Sir/ Madam);(To whom it may concern); Dear Mr/Ms...)
• INTRODUCTION: (my name is... and I am writing with regard to...); (I would like...)
• BODY: (I would really appreciate if you could...)
• CONCLUSION: (thank you for your help);( I look forward to hearing from you); (please feel free if you have any question)
• DESPEDIDA: (Yours sincerely, yours cordially);(Respectfully)

INFORMAL E-MAIL:

• OPENING SALUTATION: (Hi ...,)
• BODY: (How are you? hope you are well.); (thanks for your e-mail, it was great to hear from you) (sorry for not writing earlier)
• INTRODUCE THE TOPIC: (I'm writing to thank you for...);(Listen, did I tell you about...); (I was wondering if you could help me.)
• CLOSING LINE: (well, that's all for now); (hope to hear

Accounting in Ancient Civilizations

The earliest civilizations that arose on earth had to find a way to record certain facts with arithmetic projection, which occurred too often and too complex to be retained by the memory.

Mesopotamia

The famous Code of Hammurabi, promulgated about the year 1700 AD, contained criminal law, civilian and commercial standards. It regulated contracts such as loans, sales, leases, fees, deposits, and other forms of civil and commercial matters.

Egypt

If accounting was important among the peoples of Mesopotamia, it was even more necessary in a society as rigidly centralized as pharaonic Egypt.

Greece

The Hellenic temples, as had happened many centuries before in Mesopotamia and Egypt, were the first places in ancient Greece... Continue reading "Accounting History: From Ancient Civilizations to Modern Profession" »

Understanding Text Organization

A text is an organized linguistic unit (words, phrases, sentences, periods, paragraphs, full text) structured according to the communicative situation, register of language, and communicative intentionality.

Sentence-Period

A sentence-period is a set of sentences linked by a period, covering the same subject.

Message vs. Text

The message is what is said, while the text is the organized form of what is said.

Communicative Environment

The communicative environment surrounds the issuance of a text and a message. Key questions include: "Who speaks?" and "To whom do they speak?"

Intention to Communicate

This refers to what we want to achieve with our message, such as reporting, ordering, inviting, seeking, or requesting.

The... Continue reading "Understanding Text Organization, Communication, and Language" »

Understanding the Pronoun 'SE' in Spanish

Pronominal Uses of 'SE'

1. Indirect Object Pronoun (CI)

• The pronoun 'le' (indirect object) can take the forms 'lo, la, los, las' when it precedes a direct object pronoun.
• It refers to the same person as the subject.
• This pronoun does not alter the verb's meaning.
• The verb is transitive and is accompanied by a direct object, which can be replaced by a different pronoun.

2. Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns

• Reflexive: The action performed by the subject reflects back on the subject itself.
  • Example: María se peina (Maria combs herself). This implies María peina a María (Maria combs Maria).
• Reciprocal: Similar to reflexive pronouns, but used with a plural subject where participants exchange actions.
  • Example: Pedro

Indefinite Determiners and Pronouns

Indefinite determiners and pronouns allude to concepts such as quantity but in a generally vague and indeterminate manner. They are opposed to numerals, which indicate exact amounts.

Indefinite determiners are incompatible with non-count nouns in the plural unless referring to classes, properties, etc.

Common Indefinite Terms

• un/una (a, an)
• alguno/a/os/as (some, any)
• ninguno/a/os/as (no, none, not any)
• cualquier/a, cualesquiera (whatever, whichever)
• quienquiera, quienesquiera (whoever)
• demás (other, rest)
• otro/a/os/as (other, another)
• vario/a/os/as (various, several)
• mucho/a/os/as (much, many)
• poco/a/os/as (little, few)
• cierto/a/os/as (certain)
• más (more)
• menos (less, fewer)
• bastante/es (enough, quite a lot)
• todo/a/os/as

Types of Conjunctions in Spanish

Coordinate Conjunctions

These connect elements of equal grammatical rank.

• Juxtaposed: I came, I saw, I conquered
• Coordinated (P1 - P2)
• Copulative: (y, e) Example: John studied and Anna works
• Adversative: (pero, mas, sin embargo) Example: We played well but lost
• Disjunctive: (o, u) Example: Either you come or stay
• Distributional: (ya...ya, bien...bien, unos...otros) Example: Some are playing, others do the task

Subordinate Conjunctions

These connect a subordinate clause to a main clause.

Substantive Conjunctions

These act as a noun phrase.

• Substitute for nouns or pronouns
• The conjunction acts as a link
• Subject: Example: I am concerned that I should study hard.
• (CD) Example: Andrew thinks that Carlos was right.
• (CN) Example: We

Understanding Key Linguistic Concepts

Fundamentals of Language

• Language: The human capacity to communicate, transmit knowledge, and express thoughts. It encompasses various functions:
  • Emotional: Expressing feelings (e.g., "Visca!").
  • Conative: Influencing the listener (e.g., "Compte!").
  • Phatic: Establishing or maintaining communication (e.g., "Hello?").
  • Aesthetic: Focusing on the form of the message (e.g., poetry).
  • Referential: Conveying information about the world.
  • Metalinguistic: Language used to discuss language itself.
• Meaning (Signified): The concept or mental image associated with a word.
• Signifier: The written or spoken form of a word.
• Situational Context: A heterogeneous collection of extra-communicative factors and circumstances that significantly

English Verb Tenses Summary

Present Tenses

• Present Simple (Habitual actions): I/you/we/they → go/have. He/She/It → goes/has.
  • Example: Every day I go to school.
  • Time Markers: sometimes, usually, never, always.
• Present Continuous (Temporary actions): Are/is + -ing.
  • Example: She is eating an ice cream.
  • Time Markers: At the moment, tomorrow, today.

Past Tenses

• Past Simple (-ed / 2nd column irregular verbs). Used with When.
  • Example: He went to school.
  • Regular Verbs: Affirmative (-ed), Negative (didn't + base verb), Interrogative (Did + base verb).
  • Irregular Verbs: Affirmative (Past Simple form).
• Past Continuous (was/were + -ing). Used with While.
  • Example: He was painting his bedroom.
• Past Perfect (had + past participle).
  • Example: We had finished our meal when

Text Linguistics and Communication

Defining Text Linguistics

Text Linguistics is the discipline that studies the text as a unit of communication.

Understanding the Text Unit

The Text refers to the unity of all oral or written communication intentionally issued by a speaker, with a particular communicative purpose and functioning as a complete unit of communication.

Essential Properties of Text

Consistency in Text

Consistency refers to the logical relationship between all parts of the text. We perceive it as a unit of meaning that:

• Presents a logical progression of ideas.
• Ensures the theme is always the same.
• Contains enough information, with facts related to the real world.

Cohesion: Unifying Text Units

Cohesion is the union or articulation of the units... Continue reading "Foundations of Text Linguistics and Literary Analysis" »